Acquisitions Editor: Julia Helms Icy Development Editor: Andrew Goss Permissions Manager: Sara Jillings Production Editor: Ian Stoneham Manufacturing Manager: Richard Lamprecht Marketing Manager: Scott Dustan Original eighth edition en titled Principles of Marketing published by Prentice Hall Inc. A Simon & Schuster Company Upper Saddle River New Jersey, USA Copyright © 1999 by Prentice Hall Inc. First European Edition published 1996 Second European Edition published 1999 by Prentice Hal! Europe Authorised for sale only in Europe, the Middle East and Africa Copyright © Prentice Hall Europe 1996,1999 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission, in writing, from the publisher. Text and cover design: Design Deluxe, Rath, Avon Typeset in lOpt Caslon 224 Book by Goodfellow and Egan, Cambridge Printed and bound in Italy by Rotolito Lombards, Milan British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-13-262254-8 1 2 3 4 5 0,3 02 01 00 99
Contents
Preface xiii Guided Tour xx About the Autfmrf; xxii
Part One Marketing and the Marketing Process 2
.Summary 32 Key Terms 33 Discussing the Issues 33 Applying the Concepts 34 References 34 Case 1 Amphitrion: Your Ultimate Host in Greece 36
Chapter 2 Chapter 1
Marketing in a Changing World: Satisfying Hitman Needs 4 Chapter Objectives 4 Preview Case Nike 4 Introduction 7 What is Marketing? 9 Needs, Wants and Demands 10 Products and Services 11 Value, Satisfaction and Quality 11 Exchange, Transactions and Relationships 12 Markets 14 Marketing 15 Marketing Management 16 Demand Management 16 Marketing Management Philosophies 17 The Production Concept 17 The Product Concept 18 The Selling Concept 18 The Marketing Concept J9 The Societal Marketing Concept 22 Marketing Challenges into the Next Century 24 Growth of Non-Prof it Marketing 24 The Information Technology Boom 26 Rapid Globalization 28 The Changing World Economy 30 The Call for More Ethics and Social Responsibility 31 The New Marketing Landscape 31
Marketing and Society; Social Responsibility and Marketing Ethics 39 Chapter Objectives 39 Preview Case Brown & Williamson Tobacco: 'Keeping Smokers Addicted' 39 Introduction 42 Social Criticisms of Marketing 43 Marketing's Impact on Individual Consumers 43 Marketing's Impact on Society as a Whole 52 Marketing's Impact on Other Businesses 54 Citizen and Public Actions to Regulate Marketing 55 Consumerism 55 Environmentalism 57 Public Actions to Regulate Marketing 58 Business Actions Towards Socially Responsible Marketing 60 Enlightened Marketing 61 Marketing Ethics 64 Principles for Public Policy Towards Marketing 68 The Principle of Consumer and Producer Freedom 68 The Principle of Curbing Potential Harm 68 The Principle of Meeting Basie Needs 70 The Principle of Economic Efficiency 71 The Principle of Innovation 71 The Principle of Consumer Education and Information 72 The Principle of Consumer Protection 72
Contents
Sum mar;7 72 Key Terms 73 Discussing the Issues 73 Applying the Concepts 74 References 75 Case 2 Nestle: Singled Out Again and Again 76
Key Terms 124 Discussing the Issues 124 Applying the Concepts 124 References 125 Cuse 3 Look Out Lipton, Here Comes Oolong! )26 Overview Case One KitKat: Have a Break . 131
Chapter 3
Part Two
Strategic Marketing Planning 81 Chapter Objectives 81 Preview Case Levi's Strategic Marketing and Planning 81 Introduction 84 Strategic Planning 85 Overview of Planning 85 The Planning Process 86 The Strategic Plan 87 The Mission 87 From Mission to Strategic Objectives 90 Strategic Audit 91 SWOT Analysis 94 The Business Portfolio 96 Developing Growth Strategies 102 Marketing Within Strategic Planning 102 Planning Functional Strategies 102 Marketing's Role in Strategic Planning 103 Marketing and the Other Business Functions 104 Conflict Between Departments 104 The Marketing Process 105 Marketing Strategy 106 Marketing Strategies for Competitive Advantage 109 Developing the Marketing Mix 109 The Marketing Plan 111 Executive Summary 1 1 1 Marketing Audit 1 1 1 SWOT Analysis 112 Objectives and Issxies 113 Marketing Strategy 113 Marketing Mix 113 Action Programmes 113 Budgets 113 Controls I ] 5 Implementation 115 Marketing Organization 116 Marketing Control 1.18 Implementing Marketing 119 Summary 122
* vii
The Marketing Setting 140 Chapter 4
The Marketing Environment 142 Chapter Objectives 142 Preview Case Unilever: Power? 142 Introduction 146 The Company's Mieroenvironment 146 The Company 146 Suppliers 147 Marketing Intermediaries 147 Customers 148 Competitors 149 Publics 149 The Company's Macroenvironment 151 Demographic Environment 151 Economic Environment 158 Natural Environment 162 Technological Environment 165 Political Environment 167 Cultural Environment 169 Responding to the Marketing Environment 173 Summary 173 Key Terms 174 Discussing the Issues 174 Applying the Concepts 175 References 175 Case 4
Shiseido: Rethinking the Future 177
Chapter 5
The Global Marketplace 181 Chapter Objectives 181 Preview Case McDonald's: Breaking into the South African Market 181
viii • Contents
Introduction 184 Risks in International Marketing 186 High Foreign Country Debt 186 Exchange Rate Volatility 186 Foreign Government Entry Requirements 186 Costs of Marketing Mix Adaptation 187 Other Problems 187 Analysis of International Market Opportunity 187 Deciding Whether or Not to Go Abroad 187 Understanding the Global Environment 189 Deciding which Markets to Enter 201 Defining International Marketing Objectives and Policies 201 Establishing Market Entry Mode 203 Exporting 203 Joint Venturing 204 Direct Investment 207 Allocating Necessary Resources 208 Developing a Strategic Marketing Plan 209 Standardization or Adaptation for International Markets? 209 Product 212 Promotion 2.13 Price 214 Distribution Channels 215 Organizing an Operational Team and Implementing a Marketing Strategy 216 Export Department 216 International Division 216 Global Organization 217 Evaluation and Control of Operations 218 Summary 218 Key Terms 220 Diseussing the Issues 220 Applying the Concepts 221 References 221 Case 5 Procter & Gamble: Going Global in Cosmetics 222 Chapter 6
Consumer Buyer Behaviour 227 Chapter Objectives 227 Preview Case Sheba: The Pet's St Valentine's Day 227
Introduction 229 Models of Consumer Behaviour 229 Characteristics Affecting Consumer Behaviour 230
Cultural Factors 230 Social Factors 235 Personal Factors 238 Psychological Factors 243 Consumer Decision Process 250 Types of Buying Decision Behaviour 251 Complex Buying Behaviour 251 Dissonance-Reducing Buying Behaviour 252 Habitual Buying Behaviour 252 Variety-Seeking Buying Behaviour 253 The Buyer Decision Process 253 Need Recognition 254 Information Search 254 Evaluation of Alternatives 255 Purchase Decision 258 Postpurcbase Behaviour 258 The Buyer Decision Process for New Products 260 Stages in the Adoption Process 260 Individual Differences in Innovativeness 261 Role of Personal Influence 262 Influence of Product Characteristics on Rate of Adoption 263 Consumer Behaviour Across International Borders 263
Summary 264 Key Terms 265 Discussing the Issues 265 Applying the Concepts 266 References 266 Case 6 Bic Versus Gillette: The Disposable Wars 268
Chapter 7
Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour 273 Chapter Objectives 273 Preview Case Selling Business Jets: The Ultimate Executive Toy 273 Introduction 276 Business Markets 277 Characteristics of Business Markets 277 A Model of Business Buyer Behaviour 282 Business Buyer Behaviour 282 What Buying Decisions Do Business Buyers Make? 283 Who Participates in the Business Buying Process? 284
Contents What arc the Main Influences on Business Buyers? 286 How Do Business Buyers Make their Buying Decisions? 292 Institutional and Government Markets 295 Institutional Markets 296 Government Markets 296 Summary 300
Discussing the Issues 357 Applying the Goncepts 357 References 357 Case 8 Act I: Feeling Out the Appliance Controls Market 359 Overview Case Two Ballygowan Springs into New Age Kisqua 363
Key Terms 300 Discussing the Issues 301 Applying the Goncepts 301 References 301 Case 7
Part Three
Core Strategy 374
Troll-AEG 303
ChapterS
Market Information and
Chapter 9
Marketing Kesearch 313
Market Segmentation and Targeting 376
Chapter Objectives 313
Chapter Objectives 376 Preview Case Procter Ik Gamble: How Many is Too Many? 376
Preview Case Qantas: Taking Off in Tomorrow's Market 313 Introduction 316 The Marketing Information System 317 Developing Information 317 Internal Records 318 Marketing Intelligence 318 Marketing Research 320 The Marketing Research Process 320 Demand Estimation 335 Defining the Market 338 Measuring Current Market Demand 340 Estimating Total Market Demand 340 Estimating Area and Market Demand 342 Estimating Actual Sales and Market Shares 344 Forecasting Future Demand 344 Survey of Buyers' Intentions 345 Composite of Sales Force Opinions 346 Expert Opinion 346 Test-Market Method 347 Time-Scries Analysis 347 Leading Indicators 350 Statistical Demand Analysis 350 Information Analysis 351 Distributing Information 351 International Studies 354 Summary 355 Key Terms 356
IX
Introduction 379 Market Segmentation 379 Levels of Market Segmentation 379 Segmenting Consumer Markets 385 Segmenting Business Markets 401 Segmenting International Markets 403 Multivariate Segmentation 404 Developing Market Segments 408 Requirements for Effective Segmentation 409 Market Targeting 412 Evaluating Market Segments 412 Segment Strategy 414 Summary 417 Key Terms 418 Discussing the Issues 418 Applying the Concepts 419 References 419 Case 9 Coffee-Mate 420
Chapter W Positioning 431 Chapter Objectives 431 Preview Case Castrol: Liquid Engineering 431 Introduction 434
Contents Differentiation 434 Differentiating Markets 438 What is Market Positioning? 443
Chapter 12
Perceptual Mapping 446 Positioning Strategies 448 Choosing and Implementing a Positioning Strategy 455 Selecting the Right Competitive Advantages 455 Communicating and Delivering the Chosen Position 461 Summary 462
Chapter Objectives 503 Preview Case Federal Express: Losing a Packet in Europe 503 Introduction 506 Competitor Analysis 506 Identifying the Company's Competitors 507 Determining Competitors' Objectives 508 Identifying Competitors' Strategies 509 Assessing Competitors' Strengths and Weaknesses 510 Estimating Competitors' Reaction Patterns 510 Selecting Competitors to Attack and Avoid 511 Designing the Competitive Intelligence System 515 Competitive Strategics 5.15 Competitive Positions 516 Competitive Moves 519 Market-Leader Strategies 520 Market-Challenger Strategies 529 Market-Follower Strategics 532 Market-Nieher Strategies 534 Balancing Customer and Competitor Orientations 538 Summary 539
Key Terms 463 Discussing the Issues 463 Applying the Concepts 463 References 464 Case 10 Schott: Positioning for Success 465
Chapter 11
Building Customer Relationships: Customer Satisfaction, Quality, Value and Service 467 Chapter Objectives 467 Preview Case Rubbermaid: Want to Buy an Expensive Rubber Dustpan? 467 Introduction 471 Satisfying Customer Needs 471 Defining Customer Value and Satisfaction 472 Customer Value 472 Customer Satisfaction 475 Delivering Customer Value and Satisfaction 480 Value Chain 480 Value Delivery System 481 Retaining Customers 482 The Cost of Lost Customers 482 The Need for Customer Retention 483 Relationship Marketing 483 When to Use Relationship Marketing 488 The Ultimate Test; Customer Profitability 489
Creating Competitive Advantages 50,'J
Key Terms 540 Discussing the Issues 540 Applying the Concepts 541 References 541 Case 12 BMW: Putting the 'Brrrrum' Back in Bruni 543 Overview Case Three Cadbury's Timeout: Choc Around the Clock 549
Part Four Product 556
Implementing Total Quality Marketing 491 Summary 495 Key Terms 496 Discussing the Issues 496 Applying the Concepts 497 References 497 Case 11 Feinschmeckcr Sauce: Pricey 'n' Spicy 498
Chapter 13
Brands, Products., Packaging and Services 558 Chapter Objectives 558
Contents Preview Case Revlon 558 Introduction 560 What is a Product? 561 Product Classifications 562 Consumer Products 563 Industrial Products 565 Individual Product Decisions 566 Product Attributes 566 Branding 570 Packaging Decisions 583 Labelling Decisions 585 Pro duct-Support Services Decisions 585 Product Line Decisions 588 Product Line-Length Decisions 588 Product-Mix Decisions 591 International Product Decisions 593 Summary 593 Key Terms 595 Discussing the Issues 595 Applying the Concepts 595 References 596 Case 13
Colgate: One Squeeze Too Many? 597
Chapter 14
Product Development and Life-Cycle Strategies 601 Chapter Objectives 601 Preview Case Aerostinctures Ramble 601 Introduction 603 Innovation and New-Product Development 603 Risks and Returns in Innovation 604 Why Do New Products Fail? 604 What Governs New-Product Success? 605 New-Product Development Process 606 New-Product Strategy 607 Idea Generation 607 Idea Screening 611 Concept Development and Testing 612 Marketing Strategy Development 613 Business Analysis 614 Product Development 615 Test Marketing 616 Commercialization 622 Speeding Up New-Product Development 623 Organization for Innovation 625 Product Life-Cycle Strategies 626 Introduction Stage 629
XI
Growth Stage 630 Maturity Stage 630 Decline Stage 633 Summary 635 Key Terms 636 Discussing the issues 636 Applying the Concepts 636 References 637 Case 14 The Swatchmobile: Any Colour Combination, Including Black 638 Chapter 15
Marketing Services 643 Chapter Objectives 643 Preview Case Lufthansa: Listening to Customers 643 Introduction 645 Nature and Characteristics of a Service 646 Defining Services 646 Types of Service 646 Service Characteristics 647 Marketing Strategies for Service Firms 654 Managing Differentiation 655 Managing Service Quality 657 Managing Productivity 661 _ International Services Marketing 661 Summary 665 Key Terms 666 Discussing the Issues 666 Applying the Concepts 666 References 667 Case 15 Tibigarden: Is there Life after EuroDisney? 668 Overview Case Four Mattel: Getting it Right is No Child's Play 673
Part Five Price 676
Chapter 16
Pricing Considerations and Approaches 678
Contents Chapter Objectives 678 Preview Case The Times: For a Change 678 Introduction 681 Factors to Consider when Setting Prices 682 Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions 682 External Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions 690 General Pricing Approaches 697 Cost-Based Pricing 699 Value-Based Pricing 702 Competition-Based Pricing 704 Summary 706 Key Terms 707 Discussing the Issues 707
Applying the Concepts 742 References 742 Case 17 Amaizer: It Tastes Awful, but We're Working on It 743 Overview Case Five Stena Sealink versus Le Shuttle, Eurostar and the Rest 745
Part Six Promotion 752
Applying the Concepts 708 References 708 Case 16 Proton MPi: Malaysian Styling, Japanese Engineering and European Pricing 709
Integrated Marketing Coinmunication Strategy 754
Chapter 17
Chapter Objectives 754 Preview Case British Home Stores 754 Introduction 756
Pricing Strategies 717 Chapter Objectives 717 Preview Case Mobile Phones: Even More Mobile Customers 717 Introduction 719 New-Product Pricing Strategies 719 Market-Skimming Pricing 720 Market-Penetration Pricing 721 Product-Mix Pricing Strategies 722 Product Line Pricing 722 Optional-Product Pricing 723 Captive-Product Pricing 723 By-Product Pricing 724 Product-Bundle Pricing 724 Price-Adjustment Strategies 725 Discount and Allowance Pricing 725 Segmented Pricing 727 Psychological Pricing 727 Promotional Pricing 728 Value Pricing 729 Geographical Pricing 731 International Pricing 733 Price Changes 734 Initiating Price Changes 734 Responding to Price Changes 737 Summary 740 Key Terms 741 Discussing the Issues 741
Chapter 18
A View of the Communication Process 758 Steps in Developing Effective Communication 759 Identifying the Target Audience 759 Determining the Communication Objectives 760 Designing a Message 762 Choosing Media 768 Collecting Feedback 770 Setting the Total Promotion Budget and Mix 770 Setting the Total Promotion Budget 770 Setting the Promotion Mix 772 The Changing Face of Marketing Communications 779 The Changing Communications Environment 779 Integrated Marketing Communications 780 Socially Responsible Marketing Communication 781 Summary 783 Key Terms 784 Discussing the Issues 784 Applying the Concepts 785 References 785 Case 18 Absolut Vodka: Absolutely Successful 786
Contents • Chapter 19
Mass Communications: Advertising, Sales Promotion and Public Relations 791 Chapter Objectives 791 Preview Case Promotions Medley! 791 Introduction 793 Advertising 793 Important Decisions in Advertising 793 Setting Objectives 793 Setting the Advertising Budget 796 Advertising Strategy 797 Advertising Evaluation 808 Organizing for Advertising 810 International Advertising 811 Standardization or Differentiation 812 Centralization or Decentralization 814 Worldwide Advertising Media 815 Media Planning, Buying and Costs 816 International Advertising Regulations 817 Sales Promotion 818 Reasons for Growth of Sales Promotion 819 Purpose of Saies Promotion 820 Setting Sales Promotion Objectives 821 Selecting Sales Promotion Tools 822 Developing the Sales Promotion Programme 827 Pretesting and Implementing 829 Evaluating the Results 830 Public Relations 830 Important Public Relations Tools 832 Main Public Relations Decisions 832 Summary 836 Key Terms 837 Discussing the Issues 837 Applying the Concepts 837 References 838 Case 19 Diesel Jeans & Workwear: 'We're All Different, But Aren't We All Different in the Same Way?' 839
Chapter 20
Personal Selling and Sales Management 843 Chapter Objectives 843 Preview Case IBM Restructures the Sales Force 843 Introduction 845 The Role of Personal Selling 846
The Nature of Personal Selling 846 The Role of the Sales Force 847 Managing the Sales Force 848 Setting Sales Force Objectives 848 Designing Sales Force Strategy and Structure 849 Recruiting and Selecting Salespeople 853 Training Salespeople 855 Supervising Salespeople 856 Evaluating Salespeople 861 Principles of Personal Selling 864 The Personal Selling Process 864 Steps in the Selling Process 864 Relationship Marketing 869 Summary 872 Key Terms 873 Discussing the Issues 873 Applying the Concepts 873 References 874 Case 20 Britcraft Jet prop: Whose Sale is it Anyhow? 874 Overview Case Six Bang & Olufsen: Different by Design 885
Part Seven Place 890
Chapter 21
Managing Marketing Channels 892 Chapter Objectives 892 Preview Case Eeonomos 892 Introduction 894 The Nature of Distribution Channels 895 Why are Marketing Intermediaries Used? 896 Marketing Channel Functions 896 Number of Channel Levels 897 Channels in the Service Sector 898 Channel Behaviour and Organization 899 Channel Behaviour 899 Channel Organization 900 Channel Design Decisions 907 Analyzing Customer Service Needs 907 Defining the Channel Objectives and Constraints 908 Identifying Major Alternatives 910
xiv • Contents Evaluating the Main Alternatives 921 Designing International Distribution Channels 921 Channel Management Decisions 922 Selecting Channel Members 923 Motivating Channel Members 923 Evaluating and Controlling Channel Members 924 Physical Distribution and Logistics Management 925 Nature and Importance of Physical Distribution and Marketing Logistics 925 Goals of the Logistics System 926 Major Logistics Functions 927 Choosing Transportation Modes 931 International Logistics 932 Channel Trends 932 Integrated Logistics Management 932 Retailing and Wholesaling Trends 936 Summary 940 Key Terms 942 Discussing the Issues 942 Applying the Concepts 942 References 943 Case 21 Pieta Luxury Chocolates 944
Chapter 22
Direct and Online Marketing 947 Chapter Objectives 947 Preview Case Dell Computer Corporation 947 Introduction 950 What is Direct Marketing? 950 Growth and Benefits of Direct Marketing 951
The Benefits of Direct Marketing 951 The Growth of Direct Marketing 951 Customer Databases and Direct Marketing 953 Forms of Direct Marketing 955 Face-to-Face Selling 955 Direct-Mail Marketing 957 Catalogue Marketing 960 Telemarketing 961 Direct-Response Television Marketing 962 Online Marketing and Electronic Conimeree 964 Rapid Growth of Online Marketing 965 The Online Consumer 967 The Benefits of Online Marketing 969 Online Marketing Channels 970 The Promise and Challenges of Online Marketing 975 Integrated Direct Marketing 976 Public Policy and Ethieal Issues in Direct Marketing 977 Irritation, Unfairness, Deception and Fraud 979 Invasion of Privacy 979 Summary 980 Key Terms 982 Discussing the Issxies 982 Applying the Concepts 983 References 983 Case 22 Virgin Direct - Personal Financial Services 985 Overview Case Seven Freixenet Cava: bubbles down a new way 989 Glossary 998 Subject Index 1011 Index of Companies 1028 Copyright Acknowledgements
1032
Preface
Markets are changing fast. New markets are emerging, trading blocks are extending and communications channels about products and selling them are changing at a revolutionary pace. The signs of this change are everywhere in this text. Many people will use Principles of Marketing alongside its associated CDROM, Interactive Marketing. An increasing number of references are now Website addresses that anyone can access from their PC. Yet amid this turmoil some issues remain the same. Products change continuously, but the great brands shine through like storm-swept lighthouses: Coca-Cola, Nokia, Sony, BMW, Saab and Shell, to name but a few. Marketing is changing to meet the changing world. Marketing remains the business activity that identifies an organization's customer needs and wants, determines which target markets it can serve best and designs appropriate products, services and programmes to serve these markets. However, marketing is much more than an isolated business function - it is a philosophy that guides the entire organization. The goal of marketing is to create customer satisfaction profitably by building valued relationships with customers. The marketing people cannot accomplish this goal by themselves. They must work cJosely with other people in their company and with other organizations in their value chain, to provide superior value to customers. Thus, marketing calls upon everyone in the organization to 'think customer' and to do all that they can to help create and deliver superior customer value and satisfaction. As Professor Stephen Burnett says: 'In a truly great marketing organization, you can't tell who's in the marketing department. Everyone in the organization has to make decisions based on the impact on the consumer.' Marketing is not solely advertising or selling. Real marketing is less about selling and more about knowing what to make! Organizations gain market leadership by understanding customer needs and finding solutions that delight through superior value, quality and service. No amount of advertising or selling can compensate for a lack of customer satisfaction. Marketing is also about applying that same process of need fulfilment to groups other than the final consumer. Paying customers are only one group of stakeholders in our society, so it is important to reach out to others sharing our world. Marketing is all around us. 'We are all customers now', notes the author Peter Mullen, 'in every area of customer inter-relationship from the supply and consrimption of education and health care to the queue in the Post Office and the ride in an Inter-City express train, and in every financial transaction from the buying of biscuits to the purchase of a shroud.' Marketing is not only for manufacturing companies, wholesalers and retailers, but for all kinds of individuals and organizations. Lawyers, accountants and doctors use marketing to manage demand for their services. So do hospitals, museums and performing arts groups. No politician can get the needed votes, and no resort the needed tourists, without developing and carrying out marketing plans. Principles of Marketing helps students learn and apply the basic concepts and practices of modern marketing as used in a wide variety of settings: in product and service firms, consumer • XV •
xvi • Preface
and business markets, profit and non-profit organizations, domestic and global companies, and smail and large businesses. People in these organizations need to know how to define and segment markets and how to position themselves by developing need-satisfying products and services for their chosen target segments. They must know how to price their offerings attractively and affordably, and how to choose and manage the marketing channel that delivers these products and services to customers. They need to know how to advertise and promote their products and services, so that customers will know about and want them. All of these demand a broad range of skills to sense, serve and satisfy consumers. People need to understand marketing from the point of view of consumers and citizens. Someone is always trying to sell us something, so we need to recognize the methods they use. When they are seeking jobs, people have to market themselves. Many will start their careers within a sales force, in retailing, in advertising, in research or in one of the many other marketing areas. Principles of Marketing provides a comprehensive introduction to marketing, taking a practical and managerial approach. It is rich in real-world illustrative examples and applications, showing the major decisions that marketing managers face in their efforts to balance the organization's objectives and resources against the needs and opportunities in the global marketplace. Recognizing Europe's internationalism, illustrative examples and cases are drawn not from Europe alone, but also from North America, Japan, China, other countries in south-east Asia, and Africa. Some examples and cases concentrate on national issues, but many are pan-European and global cases that have an exciting international appeal. Although they cover many markets and products, the brands and customers used have been chosen to align closely with the experiences or aspirations of readers. Some examples are about global brands, such as Nike, Calvin Klein and Mercedes, while others cover interesting markets ranging from jeans and beer to executive jets, mine sweepers and Zoo Doo. Principles of Marketing describes and discusses the stories that reveal the drama of modern marketing: Nike's powerful marketing; BM~Vs entry into the off-road market; the 8 watch mobile; Levi Strauss & Go.'s startling success in finding new ways to grow globally; Apple Computers' and KFC's invasion of Japan; Qantas's struggle in the south-east Asian airline market; 3M's legendary emphasis on new-product development; MTV's segmentation of the European music market; Virgin's lifestyle marketing; B & B's Euro-segmentation; EuroDisney's disastrous adventure; Nestle's difficulty with pressure groups and adverse publicity; Stena Sealink's quest for cross-channel passengers against Le Shuttle and Eurostar. These and dozens of other illustrative examples throughout each chapter reinforce the key concepts and techniques and bring marketing to life. Its clear writing style, contemporary approach, extensive use of practical illustrative examples, and fresh and colourful design make this test easy to read, lively and an enjoyable learning experience.
The Second European Edition Following extensive market research throughout Europe, this Second European Edition of Principles of Marketing provides significant improvements in content and structure, illustrative examples and case material, pedagogical features and text design.
frefaee • xvii
Content and Structure The content and structure have been changed to meet the needs of the user and take in new market developments. Chapter 3 is shortened to give a tighter introduction to strategic marketing planning while introdueing the concepts developed in subsequent chapters. Other chapters reflect recent marketing developments. Two related changes are the coverage of key account management in chapter 8 and an extended coverage of relationship marketing in chapter 11. Competitive strategy is expanded upon in chapter 12 paying particular attention to making more money from markets. During recent years manufacturers' brands have come under increasing attack as companies try to lever more out of the brands they own. These developments receive increased attention in chapter 13. Finally, chapters 21 and 22 on die place dimension of the marketing mix are radically changed to gather new ideas on direct and on-line marketing. The overall structure is clearer, grouping chapters into seven parts each with a two-page introduction. Within this framework an extended second part, on the marketing setting, covers the marketing environment, buyer behaviour and how marketing research is used as an investigative tool.
Case Studies A total of 51 case studies are now provided in this text. There are 11 new cases in this Second Edition, and of those retained from the First Edition, many have been revised and updated. There are now three distinct types: preview cases, chapter end case studies and part overview cases. To improve consistency and the flexibility of case material to meet the needs of a range of different abilities, each of these cases now end with six questions, many of which have been reworked. These are graded by their level of difficulty; there are two questions for each of the three levels: •
Questions 1 and 2 (basic): direct issues arising from the case
•
Questions 3 and 4 (intermediate): more penetrating issues which require the application of principles
•
Questions 5 and 6 (advanced): demanding issues which require decisionmaking abilities To familiarize yourself with the main features you will encounter throughout the text, a Guided Tour is provided on pages xx-xxi.
Supplements arid Web-site A successful marketing course requires more than a well-written textbook. Today's classroom requires a dedicated teacher and a fully integrated teaching system. Principles of Marketing is supported by an extensive, innovative and high-quality range {if teaching and learning materials.
Supplements Lecturer's Resource Manual/CD-ROM This comprehensive and helpful teaching resource, prepared by T.C. Melewar, comprises:
viii
• Preface
• • • • • •
Chapter overviews. Teaching tips. Class exercises, Teachinjydiscussion notes for all the cases. Answers to all the chapter-end 'Discussing the Issues' questions and 'Applying the Concepts' exercises. CD-ROM containing over 100 full-colour PowerPoint slides of the key figures and tables from the text.
• Web-site This market-leading, fully functional Web-site has been specially commissioned and designed to accompany this Second European Edition. The site is regularly maintained and updated, arid comprises a number of innovative interactive features for both students and lecturers. Lecturers may also download the Resource Manual and PowerPoint slides. This companion Web-site can be accessed via the Prcntiee Hall Europe Website at http://www.prenhall.co.uk. For further details and to apply for an access password to certain areas of the site, please contact your local sales representative or the PHE marketing department at the following address: Prentice Hall Europe, Campus 400, Maylands Avenue, Hcmel Ilempstead, Hertfordshire HP2 7EZ, UK. Telephone: + (0)1442 881900; Fax: +1442 882265.
Acknowledgements No book is the work only of its authors. We owe much to the pioneers of marketing who first identified its major issues and developed its concepts and techniques. Our thanks £o to our colleagues at the.J.L. Kellogg Graduate School of Ma n age men i, Northwestern University; the Kenan-Flatter Business School. University of North Carolina; and Aston, Loughborough and Warwick Business Schools for ideas, encouragement and suggestions. Thanks also to all our friends in the Academy of Marketing, the European Marketing Academy, Informs, the American Marketing Association and the Chartered Institute of Marketing, who have stimulated and advised us over the years. It has been an honour to work with so many people who have helped pioneer marketing in Europe. Special thanks to Chris Stagg of Aston Business School, who has helped with many parts of the book; Marion Aitkenhead, who after the briefest t i t retirements gave us indispensable help in organizing our work; Andy Hirst of Ixi ugh borough Business School, who helped with many of the eases; TG. Melewai of Warwick University for his patience and work in revising the Lecturer's Resource Manual; and Fati mull Moran, Stephen Cleary, Alan ilawley and Ken Randall at Staffordshire University for their work on the Interactive Marketing software. We also owe particular thanks to our many colleagues who share our international vision and have contributed such an outstanding set of international cases to this hook: Pontus Alenroth, Pedro Quelhas Brito, Roberto Alvarez del Blanco, Robert Bjornstrom, Sue Bridgewater, Brenda Gullen, Peter Doyle. Colin Egan, Joakiin Kriksson, Anton Hartmann-Olcsen, Benoit Heilbrunn. Thomas Helgesson, Hiipenga M. Kabeta, Sylvie Laforet, Richard Lynch, i'eter McKiernan, DamienMcLoughlin, Alkis Magdalinos. Malin Nilsson, Franscesc Pares, Verena A. Priemer, Jeff Rapaport, Lluis G. Renart, Javier Surda, Anki Kjostrom and Ann eh Zell. Many reviewers at other colleges provided valuable comments and suggestions. We are indebted to the following colleagues: Chris Blackburn, Oxford Brookes University; D. Brownlie, University of Stirling, Ors H.D. and H.A. Cabooter, Ilogeschool Venlo; Auorey Gilmore, University of Ulster at Jordanstown; Dr Gonstantine S. Katsikeas, Cardiff Business School, University of Wales; Tore Kristensen, IOA - Copenhagen Business School;. Damien MeLoughlin, Dublin City University; Professor M.T.G. Meulenberg, Agricultural University; Blaiu Mcyrick, Coventry University; Elaine O'Brien, University of Strathclyde; Adrian Palmer, DC Monti'ort University; David Shipley, Trinity College. Dublin; Chris Simango, University of Northumbrla at Newcastle; M. van den Bosch, HEAD Arnhem; Richard Varcy, Sheffield Hallam University; and Helen R. Woodruffe, University of Salford.
Preface • six
We remain grateful to the numerous teachers who helped develop the First Edition, and to those listed below who provided comments and su; gestions during the market research for [his Second Edition: J. Hon. ESC Paris R. Rosen. University of Portsmouth A. RUSH, Freie Universitat Berlin !'. Rritto, Universidade de Porto S. Mitchell, Cheltenham & Gloucester College K. Laverick, University of Derby ,!. Gavaghan, Tralee RTC S. Al-Hasan, University of Wales A. Viekerstaff, Nottingham Trent University G. Morgan, Sheffield Haltam University I). Rose, University of Derby R. Chetin, Bilkent University J. Woods, Croydon College C. Blackburn, Oxford Brookes University J. Pilling, Highbury College of Technology P. Camp, Hogeschool Arnhani and Nijmegen C. Griffiths, University of Brighton M. Manktelow, University of Wolve-rhampton M. Jonsson, Karlskron a/Ron iieby University K MaeGettigan, Lcttcrkenny RTC P. lijork, Svenska Handelsehogskolen A. Cunningham, Shannon College L. Peters, University of East Anglia 1). Gilbert, University of Surrey M. York, University of North London 13. Oney, University of Lefke P. Nonhtif, llogesehool Nord-Nederland L. Murphy, Dundalk RTC C. Dennis, Brunei University T. Helgesson, llogskolan Halms tad P. Whittaker, Paisley University M. Raposo, Universidade de Beira Interior J. Lopez-Suit as, Universidade M. Ciirberry-Long, De Montfort University Autonoma de Barcelona S. Hogan, University of Brigliton .1. Brannigan, University of Aberdeen P. Hellman, Vaantaa Pelytedinio/Merouria B. Ardiey, Norwich City College fi. Andersson, Universileit Linkoping A Pyne, University of Luton L. Varnham, Brunei University M. van den Bosch, 1IEAO Arnheni G. Wootten, Hogesehool West-Brabant M. Higgins, Keele University R. Mathias Thjymye, llandelschoyskolen T. Desbordes, ESG Paris I. Fraser, University of Glasgow D Marshall. University of Edinburgh K. Ilowlett, North Hertfordshire College M. Baoring, Jonkoping University E- Shaw, University of Glasgow P. Murphy, Dundee University F. Belts, University of Buekingham M. de Juan Vigary, Universidade de Alicante G. Clarke, De Montfort Univcrsitv We also owe a great deaf to the people at Prentice Hall Europe who helped to develop and produce this Second Edition: Marketing Editor, Julia Helmsley provided encourage me tit, calming words, sound adviee and a steadying hand; Andy (loss, Senior Development Editor, Chris Bessant was our very patient and professional copy editor; Ian Stonebam, Production Editor, did a very fine job of guiding the book smoothly through production.
PHILIP KOTLER GARY ARMSTRONG JOHN SAUNDERS VERONICA WONG
Guided Tour
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Bullet-pomes which highlight the core coverage in terms of the learning outcomes you should acquire after reading each chapter.
PREVIEW CASE: Combines both a practical illustrative overview of the chapter mate rial, and a short problem-based case study (including graded questions) which should be attempted after you have read each chapter.
MARKETING HIGHLIGHT: Integrated throughout each chapter, these provide additional illustrative examples and/or discussion of more advanced marketing techniques and concepts.
KEY TERMS: Emboldened in the text with a concise definition in the margin to highlight the key concepts and techniques in each chapter.
Guided Tour • xxi
KEY TERMS LIST: An alphabetical listing of the key terms in each chapter, including a page reference, to assist rapid revision of the key concepts and techniques. DISCUSSING THE ISSUES: Short questions that encourage yon to review and/or critically discuss your understanding of the main topics in each chapter, either individually or in a group.
APPLYING THE CONCEPTS; Practical exercises that encourage you to develop and apply your understanding of the main topics in each chapter, cither individually or in a group. CASE STUDY: Each chapter ends with a practical problem-based illustration, including graded questions. Each of these case studies is more substantive and challenging than a chapter-open ing preview ease. OVERVIEW CASE: Each part of the text ends with a comprehensive and practical problem-based illustration, including graded questions. Each of these cases integrates concepts and techniques from preceding chapters, allowing you to apply your on del-stand ing within a broader business context.
About the Authors
PHILIP KOTLER is S. 0. Johnson & Son Distinguished Professor of International Marketing at the J. L. Kellogg Graduate School of Management. Northwestern University, lie received his master's degree at the University of Chicago and his PhD at MIT, both in Economics. Dr Kotler is author of Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control (Prentice Hall). He has authored several other successful books and he has written over 100 articles for leading journals. He is the only three-time winner of the Alpha Kappa Psi award for the best annual article in the Journal of Marketing. Dr Kotler's numerous major honours include the Paul D. Converse Award given by the American Marketing Association to honour 'outstanding contributions to the science of marketing' and the Stuart Henderson Britt Award as Marketer of the Year. In 1985, he was named the first recipient of two major awards: the Distinguished Marketing Educator of the Year Award, given by the American Marketing Association and the Philip Kotler Award for Excellence in Health Care Marketing. Dr Kotler has served as a director of the American Marketing Association. He has consulted with many major US and foreign companies on marketing strategy. GARY ARMSTRONG is Professor and Chair of Marketing in the Kenan-Flagler Business School at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, He received his PhD in marketing from Northwestern University. Dr Armstrong has contributed numerous articles to leading research journals and consulted with many companies on marketing strategy. But Dr Armstrong's first love is teaching. He has been very active in Kenan-Flagler's undergraduate business programme and he has received several campus-wide and business schools teaching awards. He is the only repeat recipient of the School's highly regarded Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching, which he won for the third time in 1993.
About the Authors
JOHN SAUNDERS Bachelor of Science (Loughborougb), Master of Business Administration (Cranfield), Doctor of Philosophy (Bradford), Fellow of the British Academy of Management, Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Marketing, Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, is Professor of Marketing and Head of Aston Business Sclioot, Birmingham. Previously, he worked for the Universities of Loughborough, Warwick, Bradford, Huddersfield and Hawaii, for the Hawker Siddeley Group and British Aerospace. He is past editor of the International Journal of Research in Marketing, is an assistant editor of the British Journal of Management, President of the European Marketing Academy, a member of the British Academy of Management's fellowship committee and the Chartered Institute of Marketing's. His publications include The Marketing Initiative, co-authorship of (Competitive Positioning and Principles of Marketing: the European Edition. He has published over sixty refereed journal articles including publications in the Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research. Marketing Science, International Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Product Innovation Management and Journal of Business Research. VERONICA WONG, BSc, MBA (Bradford), PhD (GNAA), FRSA is a Reader in marketing at Warwick Business School. Dr Wong was born in Malaysia where she studied until her first degree. She has also taught in Malaysia and worked for Ciba Geigy. Dr Wong has worked with a wide range of international firms and government bodies concerned with product innovation and its management, including Britain's Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) Innovation Advisory Unit. She wrote the DTI's manual on Identifying and Exploiting New Market Opportunities. She has also published over fifty papers in refereed conferences and journals, including the Journal of Internationa! Business Studies, the Journal of Product Innovation Management and the European Journal of Marketing,
'No profit grows where is no pleasure taken.' WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Part Introduction PART ONE OF PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING examines marketing's role in society and the organizations that use it. Chapter 1 shows how marketing is everywhere. It also tells how marketing has grown as the belief that organizations do best by caring for their customers. This understanding is expanded in Chapter 2, which looks beyond buying and selling to examine marketing's role and responsibilities in society. Together these chapters examine marketing as 'the place where the selfish interests of the manufacturer coincide with the interest of society', as the advertising guru David Ogilvy
put it. Chapter 3 takes the discussion from what marketing does to how marketing is done. In developing the strategic marketing planning process, it looks at how marketing fits with other business activities and how it is organized. Most importantly, it introduces the marketing activities appearing elsewhere in Principles of Marketing and shows how they combine to make modern marketing.
CHAPTER 1 Marketing in a Changing World: Satisfying Human Needs CHAPTER 2 Marketing and Society: Social Responsibility and Marketing fit/lies CHAPTER 3 Strategic Marketing Planning OVERVIEW CASE 1 KitKat: Have a Break .
Marketing in a Changing World: Satisfying Human Needs CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should he able to: Define marketing and discuss its core concepts. Define marketing management and examine how marketers manage demand and build profitable customer relationships. Compare the five marketing management philosophies, and express the basic ideas of demand management and the creation of customer value and satisfaction, Analyse the key marketing challenges facing marketers heading into the next century:
Preview Case Nike THE 'SWOOSH' - IT'S EVERYWHERE! JUST for fun, try counting the swooshes whenever you pick up the sports pages, watch a tennis match or basketball game, or tune into a televised golf match. Nike has built the ubiquitous swoosh (which represents the wing of Nike, the Greek goddess of victory) into one of the best-known brand symbols on the planet. The symbol is so well known that the company routinely runs atis without even mentioning the Nike name. In fact, you may be surprised to find that your latest pair of
Preview Case: Nike
Nike's inspirational prc-Olympic campaign in 1996, using disabled athlete Peter Hull, i,s not just about running a marathon. Here, Nike forces people to reconsider stereotyped ideas. Photography: Tim O'Sullivan Advertising Agency: Simons Palmer
Nike shoes, or your Nike hat or T-shirt, carries no brand identification at all other than the swoosh. The power of its brand and logo speaks loudly to Nike's superb marketing skills. The company's now-proven strategy of building superior products around popular athletes has changed the face of sports marketing for ever. Nike spends hundreds of millions of dollars eaeh year on big-name endorsements, splashy promotional events and lots of attention-getting ads. Over the years, Nike has associated itself with some of the biggest names in sports. No matter what your sport, the chances arc good that one of your favourite athletes wears the Nike swoosh. Nike knows, however, that good marketing rnns much deeper than promotional hype and promises. Good marketing means consistently delivering real value to customers. Nike's initial success resulted from the technical superiority of its running and basketball shoes, pitched to serious athletes who were frustrated by the lack of innovation in athletic equipment. To this day, Nike leads the industry in product development and innovation. But Nike gives its customers more than just good athletic gear. As the company notes on its Web page (www.nike.com): 'Nike has always known the truth - it's not so much the shoes but where they take you.' Beyond shoes, apparel and equipment. Nike markets a way ot' life, a sports culture, a 'Just do it!' attitude. When you lace up your Nikes, you link yourself, in at least some small way, with all that Nike and its athletes have come to represent - a genuine passion for sports, a maverick disregard for convention, hard work and serious sports performance. Through Nike, you share a little of Michael Jordan's intense competitiveness. Tiger Woods' cool confidence, Jackie Joyncr-Kersee's gritty endurance, Ken Griffey, Jr's selfless consistency or Michael Johnson's blurring speed. Nike is athletes, athletes are sports, Nike is spans. Nike's marketers build relationships - between Nike, its athletes and customers. For example, a recent ad in a tennis magazine shows only a Nike tennis shoe with the red swoosh and a freephone number. Readers who call the number hear tennis favourite Jim Courier talking drums with his
6 • Chapter 1 Marketing in a Changing World favourite drummer, Randy (Joss of Toad the Wet Sprocket. (Jail the number in a similar basketball ad and you'll overhear a humorous phone conversation In which Father Guido Sardueci tries to get Michael Jordan to invest in his newest invention, edible bicycles. Nike seems to care as much about its customers' lives as their bodies. It doesn't just promote sales, it promotes sports for the benefit of all. For example, its 'If you let me play' campaign lends strong support to women's sports and the many benefits of sports participation for girls and young women. Kike also invests in a wide range of lesser-known sports, even though they provide less lucrative marketing opportunities. Such actions establish Nike not just as a producer of good athletic gear, but as a good and earing company. Taking care of customers has paid off handsomely for Nike. Over the past decade, Nike's revenues have grown at an incredible annual rate of 21 per cent; annual return to investors has averaged 47 per cent. Over 1996 alone, total revenues increased by 36 per cent. Nike, with 27 per cent share, twice that of nearest competitor Reebok, flat-out dominates the world's athletic footwear market. Nike founder and chief executive Phil Knight has brashly predicted that Nike will double its sales within the next five years. To meet this ambitious goal in the face of a maturing US footwear market, Nike is moving aggressively into new product categories, sports and regions of the world. In only a few years, Nike's sports apparel business has grown explosively, now accounting for nearly a quarter of Nike's 88 billion in yearly sales. And Nike is slapping its familiar swoosh logo on everything from sunglasses and footballs to batting gloves and hockey sticks. Nike has recently invaded a dozen new sports, including baseball, golf, ice and street hockey, inline skating, wall climbing, and hiking and other outdoor endeavours. Still, to meet its goals, much of Nike's growth will have to come from overseas. And to dominate globally, Nike must dominate in football, the world's most popular sport. Nike has previously all but ignored the multibillion dollar world football market, which currently accounts for only 3 per cent of its sales. Now, soccer is Nike's top priority. In typical fashion, Nike has set World Cup 2002 as its deadline for becoming the world's no. 1 supplier of football boots, clothing and equipment. Elbowing its way to the top by 2002 won't he easy. World football has long been dominated by Adidas, which claims an 80 per cent global market share in football gear. Nike will have to build in just a few years what Adidas has built over the past fifty. Employing classic in-your-face marketing tactics, Nike is spending hundreds of millions of dollars in an all-out assault on competitors. Its open-wallet spending has dazzled the football world and its vast resources are rapidly changing the economics of the game. For example, it recently paid a record-setting $200 million over ten years to snatch sponsorship of the World Cup champions, Brazil's national team, from Umbro. Still, winning in worldwide football, or in anything else Nike does, will take more than just writing fat cheques. Some Nike watchers fear that Nike's massive global expansion, coupled with its entry into new sports and products, will result in a loss of focus and overexposure of the Nike brand name. They worry that the swoosh could suddenly become imhip. To prevent this, Nike will have to deliver worldwide a consistent image of superior quality, innovation and value compared to its rivals. It will have to earn respect on a country-by-country basis and become a part of the cultural fabric of each new market.
Introduction
Competitors can only hope that Nike will overreach, but few are counting on it. For now, most can only sit back and marvel at Nike's marketing prowess. As for football, rival Puma sees Nike's taeties as heavy handed but has little doubt that Nike's superb marketing will prevail. Its president states flatly, 'Nike will control the soccer world.' 1
QUESTIONS You should attempt these questions only after completing your reading of this chapter 1. What do you understand by the term 'marketing'? 2. What would you consider to be Nike's 'superb marketing skills'? 3. Why does Nike require these skills to compete in the marketplace? 4. Why does Nike spend hundred of millions of dollars on promoting its brand and logo? 5. Who are Nike's consumers? What might their needs be? 6. Show how marketing principles and practices will enable Nike to satisfy these needs, bearing in mind the diverse range of product and geographic markets die company operates in.
Introduction Many large and small organizations seek success. A myriad factors contribute to making a business successful - strategy, dedicated employees, good information systems, excellent implementation. However, today's successful companies at all levels have one thing in common - like Nike they are strongly customer-focused and heavily committed to marketing. These companies share an absolute dedication to sensing, serving and satisfying the needs of customers in well-defined target markets. They motivate everyone in the organization to deliver high quality and superior value for their customers, leading to high levels of customer satisfaction. These organizations know that if they take care of their customers, market share and profits will follow. Marketing, more than any other business function, deals with customers. Creating customer value and satisfaction are at the very heart of modern marketing thinking and practice. Although we will explore more detailed definitions of marketing later in this chapter, perhaps the simplest definition is this one: Marketing is the delivery of customer satisfaction at a profit. The goal of marketing is to attract new customers by promising superior value, and to keep current customers by delivering satisfaction. Many people think that only large companies operating in highly developed economies use marketing, but some marketing is critical to the success of every organization, whether large or small, domestic or global. In the business sector, marketing first spread most rapidly in consumer packaged-goods companies, consumer durables companies and industrial equipment companies. Within the past few decades, however, consumer service firms, especially airline, insurance and financial services companies, have also adopted modern marketing practices. Business groups such as lawyers, accountants, physicians and architects, too,
8 • Chapter 1 Marketing in a Ctumging World
Figure 1.1
Core marketing concepts
have begun to take an interest in marketing and to advertise and to price their services aggressively. Marketing has also become a vital component in the strategies of many nonprofit organizations, sueh as schools, charities, churches, hospitals, museums, performing arts groups and even police departments. We will explore the growth of non-profit marketing later in this chapter. Today, marketing is practised widely all over the world. Most countries in North and South America, western Europe and Asia have well-developed marketing systems. Even in eastern Europe and the former Soviet republics, where marketing has long had a bad name, dramatic political and social changes have created new opportunities for marketing. Business and government leaders in most of these nations are eager to learn everything they can about modern marketing practices. You already know a lot about marketing - it's all around you. You see the results of marketing in the abundance of products that line the store shelves in your nearby shopping mall. You see marketing in the advertisements that fill your TV screen, magazines and mailbox. At home, at school, where you work, where you play - you are exposed to marketing in almost everything you do. Yet, there is much more to marketing than meets the consumer's casual eye. Behind it all is a massive network of people and activities competing for your attention and money.
What is Marketing ? The remaining pages of this book will give you a more complete and formal introduction to the basic concepts and practices of today's marketing. In this chapter, we begin by defining marketing and its core concepts, describing the major philosophies of marketing thinking and practice, and discussing some of the major new challenges that marketers now face.
What is Marketing? What does the term marketing mean? Marketing must be understood not in the old sense of making a sale - 'selling' - but in the new sense of satisfying customer needs. Many people think of marketing only as selling and advertising. And no wonder, for every day we are bombarded with television commercials, newspaper ads, direct mail and sales calls. Someone is always trying to sell us something. It seems that we cannot escape death, taxes or selling! Therefore, you may be surprised to learn that selling and advertising are only the tip of the marketing iceberg. Although they are important, they are only two of many marketing functions, and often not the most important ones. If die marketer does a good job of identifying customer needs, develops products that provide superior value, distributes and promotes them effectively, these goods will sell very easily. Everyone knows something about 'hot' products. When Sony designed its first Walkman cassette and disc players, when Nintendo first offered its improved video game console, and when The Body Shop introduced animal-cruelty-free cosmetics and toiletries, these manufacturers were swamped with orders. They had designed the 'right' products; not 'me-too' products, but ones offering new benefits. Peter Drucker, a leading management thinker, has put it this way: 'The
This ad assures card members that American Express World' Service representatives go beyond the call of duty to solve their unexpected problems.
10 • Chapter 1 Marketing in a Changing World
marketing A social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating ami exchanging products and value with others.
aim of marketing is to make selling superfluous. The aim is to know and understand the customer so well that the product or service fits .. and sells itself.'2 This does not mean that selling and advertising are unimportant. Rather, it means that they are part of a larger marketing mix - a set of marketing tools that work together to affect the marketplace. We define marketing as: a nodal and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others:' To explain this definition, we examine the following important terms: needs, -wants and demandsproducts; value and satisfaction; exchange, transactions and relatitmships; and markets. Figure 1.1 shows that these core marketing concepts are linked, with each eoneept building on the one before it.
Needs. Wants and Demands human need A state of felt deprivation.
The most basic concept underlying marketing is that of human needs. A human need is a state of felt deprivation. Humans have many complex needs. These include basic physical needs for food, clothing, warmth and safety; social needs for belonging and affection; and individual needs for knowledge and self-expression. These needs are not invented by marketers, they are a basic part of the human make-up. When a need is not satisfied, a person will do one of two things: 1. look for an object that will satisfy it; or 2. try to reduce the need.
human want The form that a human
need takes as shaped by culture and individual personality.
demands Human ^ants that are backed by buying power.
People in industrial societies may try to find or develop objects that will satisfy their desires. People in less developed societies may try to reduce their desires and satisfy them with what is available. H u m a n wants are the form taken by human needs as they are shaped by culture and individual personality. A hungry person in Bahrain may want a vegetable eurry, mango chutney and lassi. A hungry person in Eindhoven may want a ham and cheese roll, salad and a beer. A hungry person in Hong Kong may want a bowl of noodles, char siu pork and jasmine tea. Wants are described in terms of objects that will satisfy needs. As a society evolves, the wants of its members expand. As people are exposed to more objects that arouse their interest and desire, producers try to provide more want-satisfying products and services. People have narrow, basic needs (e.g. for food or shelter), but almost unlimited wants. However, they also have limited resources. Thus they want to choose products that provide the most satisfaction for their money. When backed by an ability to pay - that is, buying power - wants become demands. Consumers view products as bundles of benefits and choose products that give them the best bundle for their money. Thus a Honda Civic means basic transportation, low price and fuel economy. A Mercedes means comfort, luxury and status. Given their wants and resources, people demand products with the benefits that add up to the most satisfaction. Outstanding marketing companies go to great lengths to learn about and understand their customers' needs, wants and demands. They conduct consumer research, focus groups and customer clinics. They analyze customer complaint, inquiry, warranty and service data. They train salespeople to be on the look-out for unfulfilled customer needs. They observe customers using their own and competing products, and interview them in depth about their likes and dislikes. Understanding customer needs, wants and demands in detail provides important input for designing marketing strategies.
Wiiat is Marketing? •
11
Products and Services People satisfy their needs and wants with products. A product is anything that can he offered to a market to satisfy a need or want. Usually, the word product suggests a physical object, such as a car, a television set or a bar of soap. However, the concept of product is not limited to physical objects - anything capable of satisfying a need can be called a product. In addition to tangible goods, products include services, which are activities or benefits offered for sale that are essentially intangible and do not result in the ownership of anything. Examples are banking, airline, hotel and household appliance repair services. Broadly defined, products also include other entities such as persons, places, organizations, activities and ideas. Consumers decide which entertainers to watch on television, which political party to vote for, which places to visit on holiday, which organizations to support through contributions and which ideas to adopt. Thus the term product covers physical goods, services and a variety of other vehicles that can satisfy consumers' needs and wants. If at times the term product does not seem to fit, we could substitute other terms such as satisfier, resource or offer. Many sellers make the mistake of paying more attention to the physical products they offer than to the benefits produced by these products. They see themselves as selling a product rather than providing a solution to a need. The importance of physical goods lies not so much in owning them as in the benefits they provide. We don't buy food to look at, but because it satisfies our hunger. We don't buy a microwave to admire, but because it cooks our food. A manufacturer of drill bits may think that the customer needs a drill bit, but what the customer really needs is a hole. These sellers may suffer from 'marketing myopia'. 4 They are so taken with their products that they focus only on existing wants and lose sight of underlying customer needs. They forget that a physical product is only a tool to solve a consumer problem. These sellers have trouble if a new product comes along that serves the need better or less expensively. The customer with the same need will -want the new product.
product
Anything that van be offered to a market for attention, txccfuisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a want or need. It includes physical objects, services, persons, places, organizations and ideas. service Any activity or benefit that one party can offer to another which is essentially intangible and does not result in ownership of anything.
Value, Satisfaction and Quality Consumers usually face a broad array of products and services that might satisfy a given need. How do they choose among these many products? Consumers make buying choices based on their perceptions of the value that various products and sendees deliver. The guiding concept is customer value. Customer value is the difference between the values the customer gains from owning and using a product and the costs of obtaining the product. For example, Federal Express customers gain a number of benefits. The most obvious is fast and reliable package deliver;'. However, when using Federal Express, customers may also receive some status and image values. Using Federal Express usually makes both the package sender and the receiver feel more important. When deciding whether to send a package via Federal Express, customers will weigh these and other values against the money, effort and psychic costs of using the service. Moreover, they will compare the value of using Federal Fjxpress against the value of using other shippers-UPS, DHL, the postal service - and select the one that gives them the greatest delivered value. Customers often do not judge product values and costs accurately or objectively. They act on perceived value. Customers perceive the firm to provide faster, more reliable delivery and are hence prepared to pay the higher prices that
customer value The consumer's assessment of the product's overall capacity to satisfy his or her n!' Us seeks global growth', Advertising Age (30 March 1992), p. 33; Kevin Cote, 'Toys' a' Us grows in Europe', Advertising Age (21 April 1992), pp. 1-16.
30
Chapter 1 Marketing in a Changing Wnrld and obtaining supplies abroad. Increasingly, international firms have to coordinate functional operations across borders and to increase efficiency. Consequently, many domestically purchased goods and services are 'hybrids', with design, material purchases, manufacturing and marketing taking place in several countries. British consumers who decide to 'buy British' might reasonably decide to avoid Sony televisions and purchase Amstrad's. Imagine their surprise when they learn that the Amstrad TV was actually made from parts and components imported from the Far East, whereas the Sony product was assembled in the United Kingdom from British-made parts. Luxury cars are another case tn point. Japanese luxury car makers such as Honda (the Acura) and Toyota (the Lexus) have moved some production to America. The German Mercedes is building sport-utility vehicles at its American assembly plant in Alabama. Rival, BMW's factory in South Carolina, already makes several versions of the 3-series as well as the 23 coupe for export to dozens of markets around the world - including Germany. Buyers, who want high quality and low price, are now prepared to accept American-built luxury ears.23 Thus managers in countries around the world are asking: Just what is global marketing? How does it differ from domestic marketing? How do global competitors and forces affect oxir business? To what extent should we 'go global'? The technological and marketing resources needed to conquer world markets in sectors such as telecommunications, airlines, ears and media, are forcing companies to seek partners. Many companies are forming strategic alliances with foreign companies, even competitors, who serve as suppliers or marketing partners. The past few years have produced some surprising alliances between competitors such as Mazda and Ford, France Telecom, Deutsche Telecom and Sprint, General Electric and Matsushita, Philips and Siemens, and Daimler Benz and United Technologies of the United States. And Microsoft and Dow Jones have teamed up to develop software for global financial markets. Winning companies in the decade ahead may well be those that have bxiilt the best global partnerships and networks.-4 We will examine global marketing management issues in greater detail in Chapter 5.
The Changing World Economy A sluggish world economy has resulted in more difficult times for both consumers and marketers. Around the world, people's needs are greater than ever, but in many areas, people lack the means to pay for needed goods. Markets, after all, consist of people with needs and purchasing power. In many cases, the latter is currently lacking. In the developed western and Asian economies, although wages have risen, real buying power has declined, especially for the less skilled members of the workforce. Many households have managed to maintain their buying power only because both spouses work. However, many workers have lost their jobs as manufacturers have automated to improve productivity or 'downsized' to cut costs. Current economic conditions create both problems and opportunities for marketers. Some companies are facing declining demand and see few opportunities for growth. Others, however, are developing new solutions to changing consumer problems. Stronger businesses have recognized and taken advantage of recent developments in communications and related technologies. These developments have raised customers' expectations of product quality, performance and durability. They no longer accept or tolerate shoddy products. Power and control have also shifted from brand manufacturers to channel members, which have become as sophisticated at marketing and exploiting technology as producers themselves. Many are finding ways to offer consumers 'more for less',
Marketing Challenges into the Next Century • 31 like Sweden's IKEA and America's Toys 'JT Us. Heavy discounters are emerging to offer consumers quality merchandise at everyday low prices. These days, customers want value and more value. Increasingly, marketers must deliver offerings that delight, not merely satisfy, customers, Toyota has succeeded in doing that: its highly acclaimed Lexus luxury line offers consumers all the technology (gadgetry) and comfort they can ever dream of, and, at about £44,000, is considered exceptionally good value tor money, compared to rival offerings in its class.
The Call for More Ethics and Social Responsibility A third factor in today's marketing environment is the increased call for companies to take responsibility for the social and environmental impact of their actions. Corporate ethics has become a hot topic in almost every business arena, from the corporate boardroom to the business school classroom. And few companies can ignore the renewed and very demanding environmental movement. The ethics and environmental movements will place even stricter demands on companies in the future. In the former Eastern bloc and many Asian countries, air, water and soil pollution has added to our environmental concerns. These and other governments across the world must consider how to handle such problems as the destruction of rain forests, global warming, endangered species and other environmental threats. The pressure is on businesses to 'ciean up' our environment. Clearly, in the future, companies will he held to an increasingly high standard of environmental responsibility in their marketing and manufacturing activities.25 More specifically, in the EU, the continuing trend towards tougher environmental rules should drive non-conforniers out of business, while others who are committed to 'cleaning up' or 'greening' their practices and operations will emerge the stronger. .Specialist industries for environmental goods and services (e.g. paper, bottle and tyre recyclers) have expanded quickly in recent years. As they say, 'there is money in Europe's muck'.21' In Chapter 2 we will take a closer look at marketing ethics and social responsibility.
The New Marketing Landscape The past deeade taught business firms everywhere a humbling lesson. Domestic companies learned that they can no longer ignore global markets and competitors. Successful firms in mature industries learned that they cannot overlook emerging markets, technologies and management approaches. Companies of every sort learned that they cannot remain inwardly focused, ignoring the needs of their customers. Prominent western multinationals of the 1970s which floundered at marketing, including Philips, Volvo, General Motors and RCA, are all struggling to revive their fortunes today. They failed to understand their changing marketplace, their customers and the need to provide value. Today, General Motors is still trying to figure out why so many consumers around the world have switched to Japanese and European cars. In the consumer electronics industry, Philips has lost its way, losing share to Japanese competitors that have been more successful in turning expensive technologies into mass consumer products. Volvo, which has long capitalized on its safety positioning, has, of late, lost this unique selling point to other car manufacturers, which have turned the safety benefit into a universal feature: many large European and Japanese ear producers now offer, as standard features, driver and passenger airbags, anti-lock braking system and other safety
Chapter 1
Marketing in a Changing World
devices. RCA. inventor of so many new products, never quite mastered the art of marketing and now puts its name on products largely imported from Asia. As we move into the twenty-first century, companies must become customeroriented and market driven in all that they do. It is not enough to be product or technology driven - too many companies still design their products without customer input, only to find them rejected in the marketplace. It is not enough to be good at winning' new customers - too many companies forget about customers after the sale, only to lose their future business. Not surprisingly, we are now seeing a flood of books with titles such as The Customer Driven Company, Customers for Life, Turning Lost Customers Into Gold, Customer Bonding, Sustaining Knock Your Socks Off Service and The Loyalty Effect.21 These books emphasize that the key to success on the rapidly changing marketing landscape will be a strong focus on the marketplace and a total marketing commitment to providing value to customers.
Sum man? Today's successful companies share a strong foeus and a heavy commitment to marketing. Modern marketing seeks to attract new customers by promising superior value, and to keep current customers by delivering satisfaction. Sound marketing is critical to the success of all organizations, whether large or small, fear-profit or non-profit, domestic or global. Many people think of marketing as only selling or advertising. But marketing combines many activities - marketing research, product development, distribution, pricing, advertising, personal selling and others - designed to sense, serve and satisfy consumer needs while meeting the organization's goals. Marketing operates within a dynamic global environment. Rapid changes can quickly make yesterday's winning strategics obsolete. In the twenty-first century, marketers will face many new challenges and opportunities. To be successful, companies will have to be strongly market focused. We define marketing as a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others. The core concepts of marketing are needs, wants and demands; products and services; value, satisfaction and quality; exchange, transactions and relationships; and markets. Wants are the form assumed by human needs when shaped by culture and individual personality. When backed by buying power, wants become demands. People satisfy their needs, wants and demands with products and services. A product is anything that ean be offered to a market to satisfy a need, want or demand. Products also include services and other entities such as persons, places, organizations, activities and ideas. In deciding which products and services to buy, consumers rely on their perception of relative value. Customer value is the difference between the values the customer gains from owning and using a product and the costs of obtaining and using the product. Customer satisfaction depends on a product's perceived performance in delivering value relative to a buyer's expectations. Customer satisfaction is closely linked to quality, leading many companies to adopt toted quality management (TQM) practices. Marketing occurs when people satisfy their needs, wants and demands through exchange. Beyond creating short-term exchanges, marketers need to build long-term relationships with valued customers, distributors, dealers and suppliers. Marketing management is the analysis, planning, implementation and control of programmes designed to create, build and maintain beneficial exchanges with
Discussing the Issues • 33 target buyers for the purpose of achieving organizational objectives. It involves more than simply finding enough customers for the company's current output. Marketing is at times also concerned with changing or even reducing demand. Managing demand means managing customers. Beyond designing strategies to attract new customers and create transactions with them, today's companies are focusing on retaining current customers and building lasting relationships through offering superior customer value and satisfaction. Marketing management can be guided by five different philosophies. The production concept holds that consumers favour products that are available and highly affordable; management's task is to improve production efficiency and bring down prices. The product concept holds that consumers favour products that offer the most quality, performance and innovative features; thus, little promotional effort is required. The setting concept holds that consumers will not buy enough of the organization's products unless it undertakes a large-scale selling and promotion effort. The marketing concept holds that achieving organizational goals depends on determining the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors do. The societal marketing concept holds that the company should determine the needs, wants and interests of target markets. Generating customer satisfaction and long-run societal well-being are the keys to achieving both the company's goals and its responsibilities. We also analyzed the major challenges facing marketers heading into the twenty-first century. Companies are wrestling with changing customer values and orientations, a sluggish world economy, the growth of non-profit marketing; die information technology boom, including the Internet; rapid globalization, including increased global competition; and a host of other economic, political and social challenges. These challenges are intensified by a demand that marketers conduct all of their business with an emphasis on more ethics and social responsibility. Taken together, these changes define a new marketing landscape. Companies that succeed in this environment will have a strong focus on the changing marketplace and a total commitment to using the tools of marketing to provide real value to customers.
Key Terms Customer satisfaction 12 Customer value 11 Demands 10 De marketing 16 Exchange .12 Human need 10 Human want 10
Internet 26 Market 14 Marketing 10 Marketing concept 19 Marketing management Product 11 Product concept 18
16
Production concept 17 Relationship marketing 14 Selling concept 18 Service 11 Societal marketing concept 22 Total ciuality management 12 Transaction 13
Discussing the Issues 1, Discuss why you should study marketing. 2. As the Preview Case implies, the marketing efforts of organizations seek to fulfil consumer needs. How
genuine are the needs targeted by Nike's marketing efforts? Critically evaluate the role that marketing plays in satisfying human desires.
34 • Chapter 1 Marketing in a. Changing World
3.
4. What is the single biggest difference between the marketing concept and the production, product and selling concepts? Winch concepts are easiest to apply in the short run? Which concept can offer the best long-term success? 5.
1.3) - discuss the key challenges facing companies as they approach the twenty-first century. What actions might they take to ensure they continue to survive and thrive in the new marketing landscape?
Many people dislike or fear certain products and would not 'demand1 them at any price. How might a health-care marketer manage the negative demand for such products as colon-cancer screenings? 6.
Using examples covered in the chapter - e.g., Nike (Preview Case), McDonald's (Marketing Highlight 1.2) and IKEA, MTV and Toys 'R' Us (Marketing Highlight
According to economist Milton Friedman, Tew trends could so thoroughly undermine die very foundations of our free society as the acceptance by corporate officials of a social responsibility other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible.' Do you agree or disagree with Friedman's statement? What arc some drawbacks of the societal marketing concept?
Applying the Concepts 1.
Go to McDonald's and order a meal. Note the questions you arc asked, and observe how special orders are handled. Next go to a restaurant on your college or university campus and order a meal. Kote the questions you are asked here, and observe whether special orders are handled the same way as they are at McDonald's. •
Did you observe any significant differences in how orders are handled?
•
Consider the differences yon saw. Do you think the restaurants have different marketing management philosophies? Which is closest to the marketing concept? Is one closer to the selling or production concept?
•
What are the advantages of closely following the marketing concept? Are there any disadvantages?
2.
Take a trip to a shopping mall. Find the directory sign. List five major categories of store, such as department stores, shoe stores, bookstores, women's clothing shops and restaurants. List the competing stores in each category, walk past them and quickly observe their mcruhandise and style. Look at the public spaces of the mall, and note how they are decorated. Watch the shoppers in the mail. • Are the competing stores really unique, or could one pretty much substitute for another? What does this say about the overall goals that the mall is fulfilling?' • Consider the attitudes of the shoppers you saw. Did some apparently find shopping a pleasure, while others found it a bother? •
A major goal for marketing is to maximize consumer satisfaction. Discuss the extent to which the mall serves this goal.
References 1.
2. 3.
Quotes from Linda liimelstein, 'The swoosh heard 'round the world', Business Week (12 May 1997). p. 76; and Jeff Jensen, 'Marketer of the Year', AftoertS&ing Age (16 December 1996), pp. 1, 16. See also llimclstein, 'The soul of a new Nike,' Business Week (17 June 1996), p. 70; Gary Hamel, 'Killer strategies that make shareholders rich', Fortune (23 June 1997], pp. 70-83; John Wyatt, 'Is it time to jump on Nike?', Fortune (26 May 1997), pp. 185-6; Patrick Harvfsrson, 'Showing a clean pair of heels', Financial Times (17/18 January 1998), p. 6; Nike's World Wide Wisb page at www nike.com. Peter F. Drucker. Management: Tasks, responsibilities, practices (New York: Harper & Row, 197,1), pp. 64-5. Here are some other definitions: 'Marketing is the performance
of business activities that direct the flow of goods and services from producer to consumer or user' 'Marketing is selling goods that don't come back to people that do.' 'Marketing is getting the right goods and services to the right people at the right place at the right time at the ri£ht price with the riglit communication and promotion.' 'Marketing is the creation and delivery of a standard of living.' 'Marketing is the creation of time, plaee and possession utilities.' The American Marketing Association approved the definition' 'Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.' As you can see, there is no single, universally agreed definition of marketing.
References • 35
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
JO.
11.
12.
13. 14. 15. 16.
There arc definitions that emphasize marketing as a process, a concept or philosophy of business, or an orientation. The diversity of views adopted by authors is reflected in the wide ; selection of marketing definitions in common use. See Miehael .1. Baker, Mficmiilan Die-nonary of Marketing and Advertising, 2nd edn (London: Macmillan, 1990), pp, 148-9. See Theodore Levitt's classic article, 'Marketing myopia', Harvard /Justness Review (July-August 1960), pp. 45-56; Dharianjayan Kashyap, 'Marketing myopia revisited: :i look through the 'colored glass of a client'. Marketing Mid Research Today (August 1996), pp. 197-2(11. Richard A. Spreng, Scott B. MacKenaie and Richard V. Olshavsky, 'A reex ami nation of the determinants of customer satisfaction,' Journal of Marketing (July 1996), pp. 15-32; Thomas A. Stewart, 'A satisfied customer isn't enough.' fortune (21 July 1997), pp. 112-13. See James C. Anderson, Ilakan llakansson and Jan Johan.son, 'Dyadic business relationships within a business network context,' Ji/urnal of Marketing (October 1994), pp. 1-15. Kevin J, Clancy and. Robert S. Sohulman, 'Breaking the mold', Sales and Marketing Management (January 1994), pp. 82-4, Thomas 0. Jones and W. Earl Sasser, 'Why satisfied customers defect', Harvard Business Reviews (NovemberDecember 1995), pp. 88-99. Ralph Waldo Emerson offered this advice: 'If a man ,. makes a better mousetrap . . the world will beat a path to his door.' Several companies, however, have built better mousetraps yet failed. One was a laser mousetrap costing $ 1,500. Contrary to popular assumptions, people do not automatically learn about new products, believe product claims, or willingly pay higher prices. Barry Farber and Joyce Wycoff, 'Customer service: evolution and revolution', Rales and Marketing Management (May 1991), p. 47. See Bernard J. Jaworski and Ajay K Kohli, 'Market orientation: antecedents and consequences', Journal of Marketing (July 1993), pp. 53-70; tt.K. Valentin, 'The marketing concept and the conceptualization 0 market strategy', Journal if Marketing Theory and Praclice (Fall 1996), pp. 16-27. Thomas E. Caruso, 'Kotler: future marketers will focus on customer data base to compete globally', Marketing JVetos (8 June 1992), pp. 21-2. See 'Leaders of the most admired', Fortune (29 January 1990), pp. 40-54; Edward A. Robinson, 'America's most admired companies', Fortune (3 March 1997), pp. 68-75. Fortune (39 January 1990), p. 54. Andrew Jack and Neil liucldev, '1 lalo slips on the raspberry . bubbles', Financial Times (27-28 August 1994), p. 8. Victor Smart, 'lirusscls ask admen how to sell the euro'. The '-. European (18-24 January 1996), p. 1. Martin Wroe, 'Ministries, missions and markets'. Marketing Business (October 1993), pp. 8-11.
17. For more examples, see Philip Kotler and Karen Fox, Strategic Marketing for Educational Institutions (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1985); Norman Shawohuek, Philip Kotler, Brute Wren and Gustav Rath, Marketing/or Congregation.-:: Choosing to serve people more vffectxvety (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1993); Joanne Scheff and Philip Kotler, 'How the arts can prosper', Harvard Business Review (January-February 1996), pp. 56-62. Ifi. Philip Kotler and Fduardo Roberto, Social Marketing: Strategies for changing public Ijchafoivur (New York. Free Press, 1990). 19. For more on the basics of using the Internet, see Raymond 11. Frost and Judy Strauss, Tlu: Internet; A nets' marketing tool (Upper Saddle River, NJ: I'rentiee Hall, 1997). 20. Amy Cortese, 'A census in cyberspace', Business Weak (5 May 1997), p. 84. For the most recent statistics, eheck the results of an ongoing survey of Internet usage conducted by GommerceNet and Nielsen Media Research, www.commerce.net/nielKen/. 21. Pete & Barbara's Penguin Page is located at http ://ou r wo rl d. e o m puserve. e o m/h o m e p ages/1 'eter_and_Barb ara_Barham/. 22. See John Deighton, 'The future of interactive', Harvard liusinnfifi Review (November-December 1996), pp. 151-62; Hebora Spar and Jeffrey Bussgang, 'The Net', Harvard Business Review (May-June 1996), pp. 125—33. 23. 'Luxury cars in America', The Economist (8 July 1995), pp 81, S4; Justin Martin, 'Mercedes: 'Made in Alabama', Fortune (7 July 1997), pp. 74-9. 24. For more on strategic alliances, see Jordan D. Lewis, Partnershi$>$JGT I'rofit- Structuring ami managing, stiwe£tc atlianves (New York. Free Press, 1990); Peter Lorange and Johan Roos, Strattgie Alliances-. FwmaHbn, implerra.ination and eodution (Cambridge, MA: Blaekwell, 1992); Frederick E. Webster, Jr, 'The changing role of marketing in the corporation', Journal of Marketing (October 1992), pp. 1-17. 25. Stuart L. Hart, 'Ueyond greening: strategies for a sustainable world'. Harvard Busirit's Jtejie-ie (January—February 1997), pp. 67-76. 26 'The money in Europe's muck'. The Kconainist (20 November 1993), pp. 109-10. 27. Richard C. Whitely, The Customer Driven Company (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1991); Chaite Sewell, Customers for Life: HOM> to turn the one-rime buyer into a lifetime customer (New York: Pocket liooks. 1990); Joan K. Cannie, 'lirmng Lost Customers into Gold- And the art of aohieviTg stro de/ewtons (Mew York: Amacom. 1993); Richard Cross and Janet Smith, Customer Bonding: Tlieficepoint system for maximizing customer Inyalty (Chicago, IL NTC Business Books, 1994); Ron Zemke and Thomas K. Connellan, Sustaining Knoofc Ynur Souks Off Survive (New York: Amacom, 3 993); Frederick F. Reicheld, The Loyalty Kffect (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996).
36 • C/itipter 1 Marketing in a Changing World
Case 1 Amplrilrion: Your Ultimate Host in Greece Atkis S. Magdalinos AROUND THE END OF OCTOBER 1993, Constantinos Mitsiou, owner and manager of the Greek Amphitrion group of companies, was wondering it' he should launch a special tour for teenagers. What he had in mind was a tour lasting 14 days that would incorporate most of the natural beauty spots of Greece, as well as numerous historic and archaeological sites, lie had already concluded a tentative agreement with a couple of professors who would act as guides and worked out a preliminary itinerary, but now he was not sure if he should continue with the idea. Ainpliitrion, which started as a travel agency in 1957, was now a large travel and shipping business - 'your ultimate hosts in Greece'. The head office of Amphitrion is in Constitution Square, a prestigious business area in the centre of Athens. It also has branches in Tokyo, Washington, DC, and Toronto as well as other Greek offices in Athens, Crete and Piraeus, The largest part of the touring business was for executives and employees of businesses who bought their tickets from the agency branch of the business. These clients also bought family holidays and travel. In 1993 the biggest part of the clientele was middle and senior executives and, sometimes, their secretaries and assistants. Only some 10 per cent of sales came from 'dropins', people who casually dropped in at one of Amphitrion's travel offices. Mr Mitsiou had first started thinking about his teenager tour after a meeting with other agents at an International Convention, in Milan, in September 1993. He had had a discussion with a travel agent from Rome, who told him about a similar exercise he had organized successfully during the last holiday season. He was already thinking of repeating the tour in Greece. He also told Mr Mitsiou that both parents and teenagers looked forward to such tours, since it allowed them to have separate holidays. The best time for the tours was between July and August when schools were on holiday. Parents accepted the idea of the tour if the agent could guarantee proper supervision and the calibre of the people acting as guides. When Mr Mitsiou came back to Athens he repeated the idea to his friends Joan and George Lykidis, and asked them whether they would like to act as guides for the tour. Mr Lykidis was the headteachcr of one of Athens' largest schools and a professor of history. Roth Mr and Mrs Lykidis were enthusiastic about the idea and were eager to take it on. Mr Mitsiou did not know if anyone else in Greece had started such a tour. However, he knew that for some years a professor at a well-known school had organized tours of Europe for students from private schools. The activity had developed into a profitable summer business. As far as Mr Mitsiou knew, the tours were always successful and sold out each year. The teacher used no special advertising for his tours, getting most of his business
Gust' J: Amphitrwm • 37 from former students who had been on the tour themselves and who now sent their children. The tours Mr Mitsiou had in mind would focus on Greeee, including its local colour as well as the important historic and archaeological sites around the country. Characteristically, Mr Mitsiou said the nature of the tour had occurred to him after reading letters from parents and professors in the daily press. These complained about the theoretical way Greek history was taught at school. To Mr Mitsiou, it was obvious from the letters that parents and students wanted a tour visiting the sites they had studied so drily in their history classes. Parents definitely looked forward to giving their children a well-organized tour, in which they would visit all these places and in which, with proper guidance, the entire history of their ancestry would be revealed to them. Mr Mitsiou also knew very well that teenagers would not like it if the whole of the itinerary comprised only visits to museums, and to historic and archaeological sites. He would.therefore give them a chance to enjoy the beautiful seashores and beaches; to go into towns and villages; and to have fun at tavenias and discos and enjoy some dancing and entertainment. After considerable thought, he developed the following itinerary: Day 1 Day 2
Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Day 10 Day 11 Day 12 Day 13 Day 14
Departure from Athens, Thermopylae, Tempi, Mount Olympus, Thessaloniki overnight. Morning free. Afternoon visit Eptapyrgio, Old City, St Demetrious Church, International Fairgrounds, night at a disco, stay overnight at Eptapyrgio. Depart for Philippi, visit sites of interest at Kavala, stay overnight on Thasos Island. Swimming at Golden Beach, Makrynammos, visit Necropolis Museum, return to Kavala, stay overnight. Depart for Polygyros, Agion Oros, swimming at Chalkidiki Beach, overnight in Thessaloniki, go to a disco. Leave for ancient Pella, Vergina, Tomb of Philippos, Grcvena, Metsovo, stay overnight. loannina, visit Vella Monastery, Ali Pasha Island in loannina lake, old town, stay overnight. Dodoni, Arta, Agrinio, Missolonghi, visit sites, Aetolikon, the lagoon, fishing ponds at Tholi, overnight in Missolonghi. Depart for Patras, visit sites, leave for Kyllini, swimming, stay overnight. Leave for Olympia. visit archaeological grounds, overnight in Vityna. Leave for Tripolis, Sparta, visit the museum, Mystras, Gythio, Diros caves, Gerolimena for swimming, overnight in Areopolis. Departure for Kalamata, Pylos, Mcthoni, swimming, return to Kalamata, afternoon free, disco, stay overnight. Leave for Tripolis, Nafplio, Tolo, swimming, Tyrins, Argos, Mycenae, Nemea, overnight in Korinth. Ancient Korinth, Sykion, Kiato, Nerantza for swimming, return to Athens.
Mr Mitsiou knew that tours of this type could be cancelled at the last moment, which would mean that money would have to be refunded. If that happened, the total
38 • Chapter 1 Marketing in a Changing World spending on the promotion of the tour would amount to a IONS of about Dr266,000. In addition, money had to be paid two months in advance lo secure good rooms, especially at places with only one hotel, and this would be a significant sum that would have to be written off it' the tour did not go ahead. By Mr Mitsicm's calculation, advertising and other expenses would bring the lost; to about Drl,000,000 if the whole tour were cancelled. With a group of 40 participants on tour, his total cost came to Dr2,260,000. From this he expected to elear 7 per cent profit. If he had more people on the tour, the profits would be greater; but George Lykidis had already said that more than 40 teenagers would be impossible to supervise properly. It was important not to cancel the tour in the first year onee it had been advertised. Word of mouth was the best way of attracting tour members, particularly as a result of previous members telling their friends. So he decided he would go ahead with as few as 20 participants, even though that meant he would make a loss. By charging more, he could make money with only 20 participants, but he did not think that he could charge more than Dr60,450 per person in the first year. When he had organized tours in the past, he had used subagents who required a 5 per cent commission. In this project, however, his margins were so small that he would not use subagents. Soon after he had finished working out the plans for the tour. Mr Mitsiou met a friend, a very renowned lawyer, who had two sons in their teens. The lawyer said that he would never let his sons go on such a tour. He added that such tours treated teenagers like sheep. Anyhow teenagers had no interest in history, no matter what newspapers said to the contrary. His idea was to give his boys some money and a couple of tickets, and to allow them to travel for as long as the money lasted. For that age group, guides were not important, and it was best to give such teenagers the chance to prove that they were responsible and could travel on their own. This worried Mr Mitsiou, since he always trusted his friend's opinions. He started to reconsider his planned tour and to think of other ways to make the tour look more attractive.
QUESTIONS 1. Has Mr Mitsiou taken a marketing-oriented approach to developing his teenage tour idea? What elements of marketing orientation, if any, are missing? 2. Is the teenage tour idea financially attractive? Does it fit the strengths of the Amphitrion Group? Is it a market that the company naturally understands? 3. Would the tour have been attractive to you as a teenager? Would this Greek tour be attractive to teenagers in your country? 4. Would you have found a similar tour of your own country attractive? Would your parents find it attractive? Who is the customer in this case and what do they want? 5. Is running a tour the only way to see if it would be successful or not? How else do you think its appeal could be tested? 6. How could the tour be changed to be more appealing and less risky?
Marketing and Society: Social Responsibility and Marketing Ethics
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: List and respond to the social criticisms of marketing. Define consumerism and environmentalis-m and explain how they affect marketing strategies. Describe the principles of socially responsible marketing. Explain the role of ethics In marketing.
Preview Case Brown & Williamson Tobacco: 'Keeping Smokers Addicted' IT HAS LONG BEEN KNOWN that tobacco companies control nicotine levels in their cigarettes. In the 1940s, nicotine and tar levels in cigarettes were more than three times today's levels. Manufacturers have gradually reduced them through refinements in the processing technique to satisfy demand for smoother and lighter cigarettes. A new battle started between the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and tobacco companies in June 1994. At the centre of the debate was damning evidence presented to Congress which suggested that US tobacco companies had been deliberately manipulating the amount of nicotine in cigarettes to keep the nation's 46 million smokers addicted.
• 39 •
40 • Chapter 2 Marketing and Society On 21 June 1994, a House of Representatives subcommittee heard allegations that Brown & Williamson (B & W) Tobacco, a US subsidiary of Britain's BAT Industries, had secretly developed a genetically engineered tobacco ealled Y-1 that contained more than twice the amount of nicotine found in normal tobacco plants. Mr David Kessler, head of the US FDA, informed the committee that B & W had earlier denied breeding tobacco plants for high or low nicotine content. Yet the company had several million pounds of Y-1 tobacco stored in US warehouses and had been using it in five local brands of cigarettes. Kessler suggested that US tobacco manufacturers had deliberately 'spiked' their products to keep smokers addicted. It is difficult to prove this. However, he said that it is sufficient to show that cigarette companies have the ability to control nicotine levels tn their products, allowing them to remain at addictive levels. Such evidence could he used to implicate B & W in the Y-1 row to push his case for bringing tobacco under his agency's control. He has previously threatened to regulate cigarettes as drugs if he could show that manufacturers intend consumers to buy them to satisfy an addiction. The discovery of the Y-1 high-nicotine tobacco proved beyond doubt that tobacco firms were manipulating and controlling nicotine concentration in their products. B & W defended the allegations. First, it accused Kessler of blowing the issue out of proportion. Second, it stressed the fact that Y-1 is nothing secret and just one of a variety of local and foreign tobaccos it used to give the unique 'recipe' of ingredients that went into each brand. 'Y-1 was a blending tool for flavour', B &V said. Tobacco companies argue that they cannot eliminate nicotine altogether from their products as it is an essential contributor to cigarette flavour. Smokers no longer enjoy cigarettes when the nicotine level falls below a certain point. So, it is important to adjust the level of nicotine and other flavour-enhancers to provide what cigarettes consumers like. Mr Walker Mcrriman, vice-president of the Tobacco Institute, said that 'consumer preference' was the specific reason for having any particular level of nicotine and tar in any particular cigarette. Low-nicotine brands have commanded very low market share, while no-nicotine brands had failed through lack of demand. In reality, Kessler is more concerned now with two issues: whether cigarettes are addictive, and if manufacturers intend them to be addictive. If so, on either issue, the FDA may be able to bring them under its jurisdiction as a drug. Kessler can then force the tobacco industry gradually to reduce nicotine levels in their products and so wean smokers away from the habit. The industry position is that cigarettes are not a drug, as defined in the 1938 Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, because they 'do not intend to affect the structure or any function of the body'. Furthermore, manufacturers argue that smoking cannot be addictive because 50 per cent or more of American citizens today who have ever smoked have quit - over 90 per cent of them without professional help. Critics of Kessler's policy say that there is a risk that smokers would smoke even more cigarettes to compensate for the loss of nicotine intake, which raises smokers' exposure to another serious health risk - the carcinogenic ingredients of cigarettes. Besides, this policy would boost industry profits. One debate is whether tobacco companies like B & W are knowingly manipulating nicotine levels in their products with intent to cause addiction. If so, such socially irresponsible behaviour arguably must be controlled. On past record, it will take a long time to reach the point at
Preview Case: Brown & WiUiamson Tobacco
which the FDA will bring the tobacco industry under its control. But things are stirring up fast. The race is already on to sue America's tobacco giants. In February 1995, a New Orleans court ruled that every American ever addicted to nicotine — or the relations of any nicotine-depcndent-but-nowdead American - could sue the tobacco companies. Four American states also began to sue for the cost of treating smokers! These events in the United States trivialize the tobacco advertising debate in Europe. The emergence of medical evidence suggesting that smoking is a health hazard has triggered reactions from anti-smoking groups, who argue that smoking should be at least discouraged, if not banned outright. Over the 1980s, lobbying by anti-smoking campaigners throughout Europe led to enforcement of tighter restrictions, notably on tobacco advertising. Those who rage against the evil of cigarette advertising assume that it is creating droves of new smokers. Tobacco firms argue that the assumption is doubtful, claiming that there is no evidence that advertising has much effect on total consumption. It is true that, according to one study, advertising bans in Norway, Finland, Canada and New Zealand helped to reduce cigarette consumption. But studies in other countries, such as Italy and Sweden, have shown that bans were followed by increases in smoking. Ironically, some argue that a ban would have one drawback: it would end the health warnings that now accompany tobacco advertising. Current restrictions are already tight. Cigarette companies are prohibited from advertising on television in many European markets. To stave off more draconian legislation, they have agreed: to stop advertising in the cinema or on posters near schools; to reduce advertising on shop fronts; to stop using celebrities in their advertising; and to avoid any hint that smoking brings social or sexual success. Yet, tobacco adverts are not quite dead! Advertisers often resort to the use of cryptic pictures, like red motorcycles - the clue that told consumers to rush out and buy 'Marlboro' (red is the Marlboro brand colour). In search of new customers, cigarette manufacturers are targeting females. In France, Spain, C.ermany and Britain, between a quarter and a third of smokers are women. In Sweden, they form a majority of smokers. In some cotmtries, like India and Hong Kong, women-only brands have been launched. In the Baltic states, there are massive advertising campaigns tempting women and there is a big increase in the number of women smoking. Worse, tobacco firms are preying on children. Their aggressive campaigns in the less developed Far Eastern countries, with fewer consumer protection laws, are also cause for concern.1
QUESTIONS You should attempt these questions only after completing your reading of this chapter. 1. Is advertising of hazardous products ethical? Tobacco firms claim that they advertise not to expand demiind for cigarettes, but merely to maintain their market share against competitors' brands. Is this a bogus or friendly argument? 2. Should tobacco firms take greater responsibility for communicating the health hazards of smoking, and discouraging the habit? 3. Can society expect the industry to regulate its own actions and practise socially responsible marketing? 4. Can customers and society, at large, be left to develop their own sense
•
41
42 • Chapter 2 Marketing and Society of personal responsibility - to avoid harmful products - even if firms don't? Discuss. 5. 6.
Should legislators be the ultimate force that protects innocent consumers from unsavoury marketing? In the interest of consumer safety and well-being, should tobacco firms circumvent current rules?
Tn trod action Responsible marketers discover what consumers want and respond with the right products, priced to give good value to buyers and profit to the producer. The marketing concept is a philosophy of customer service and mutual gain. Its practice leads the economy by an invisible hand to satisfy the many and changing needs of millions of consumers. But does social responsibility and morality have any role to play? Or is it incompatible with commercial survival in a competitive global market place? Those are the sort of questions that used to be asked only in classrooms and communes. But in an era when the consumer is wiser to much more of a company's practice, and when there are increasingly wide concerns about environmental issues, animal testing and human rights, the need for social responsibility and sound ethics in marketing has become crucial if customers' demands are to be fulfilled. How companies behave in the broadest sense is beginning to have an impact on how people; view their products and services. Walkers Snack Foods successfully avoided serious damage to its brand value following die discovery of glass fragments in a packet of crisps last November. Although it was discovered that a broken lens on the production line may have contaminated no more than five or six packets, the company immediately withdrew the entire offending line - totalling 9 million packets of crisps. Press statements were drafted and within 24 hours the company had a consumer helpline running. As we saw in Chapter 1, another example of a socially responsible act is Johnson & Johnson's very speedy recall of contaminated Tylenol capsules from store shelves to prevent further possibilities of consumer injury. The 'Tylenol scare' was a serious public issue and caused great consumer concern in markets where the drug was sold. However, in taking responsible action, the brand value remained undamaged in the long run and sales revived when the problem was resolved. However, not all marketers follow the marketing concept. In fact, some companies use questionable marketing practices, and some marketing actions that seem innocent in themselves strongly affect the larger society. Consider, again, the sale of sensitive products such as cigarettes. Ordinarily, companies should be free to sell cigarettes, and smokers should be free to buy them. Rut this transaction affects the public interest. First, the smoker may be shortening his or her own life. Second, smoking places a burden on the smoker's family and on society at large. Third, other people around the smoker may have to inhale the smoke and may suffer discomfort and harm. This is not to say that cigarettes should be banned, although the anti-smoking lobbyists would welcome that. Rather, it shows that private transactions may involve larger questions of public policy. In practice, the answers are by no means always clear cut. It may be ethical for tobacco firms to stop peddling cigarettes altogether, but this, while seen by absolute moralists as 'the right thing' to do, will lead to companies'
Social Criticisms of Marketing • 43 demise, job losses and the repercussions of increased unemployment on the wider community. Marketers face difficult decisions when choosing to serve customers profitably, on the one hand, and seeking to maintain a close n't between consumers' wants or desires and societal welfare, on the other. In this chapter, we discuss marketing in the context of society, the need for integrity, social responsibility and sound ethics, and the dilemmas that marketing people face. We begin with a look at the impact of private marketing practices on individual consumers and society as a whole, and examine the social criticisms of marketing. Next we discuss consumerism, environmentalism and regulation, and the way they affect marketing strategies. We address two questions: What steps have private citizens taken to curb marketing ills? What steps have legislators and government agencies taken to curb marketing ills? This leads to an overview of responsible or enlightened marketing and marketing ethics. Finally, we conclude with a set of principles for public policy towards marketing: consumer and producer freedom, avoiding harm, meeting basic needs, economic efficiency, innovation, and consumer education, information and protection.
Social Criticisms of Marketing Marketing receives much criticism. Some of this criticism is justified; much is not.2 Social critics claim that certain marketing practices hurt individual consumers, society as a whole and other business firms.
Marketing's Impact on Individual Consumers Consumers have many concerns about how well marketing and businesses, as a whole, serve their interests. Consumer advocates, government agencies and other critics have accused marketing of harming consumers through high prices, deceptive practices, high-pressure selling, shoddy or unsafe products, planned obsolescence and poor service to disadvantiged consumers.
• High Prices Many critics charge that marketing practices raise the cost of goods and cause prices to be higher than they would be if clever marketing were not applied. They point to three factors: high costs of'distribution, high advenctsing and promotion costs, and excessive mark-ups. IIlGII COSTS OF DISTRIBUTION. A long-standing charge is that greedy intermediaries mark up prices beyond the value of their services. Critics charge either that there are too many intermediaries, or that intermediaries are inefficient and poorly run, provide unnecessary or duplicate services, and practise poor management and planning. As a result, distribution costs too much and consumers pay for these excessive costs in the form of higher prices. How do retailers answer these charges? They argue, first, that intermediaries do work which would otherwise have to be done by manufacturers or consumers. Second, the rising mark-up reflects improved services that consumers themselves want - more convenience, larger stores and more assortment, longer store opening hours, return privileges and others. Third, the costs of operating stores
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Chapter 2 Marketing and Society
keep rising, forcing retailers to raise their prices. Fourth, retail competition is so intense that margins are actually quite low: for example, after taxes, supermarket chains are typically left with barely 1 per cent profit on their sales. If some resellers try to charge too much relative to the value they add. other resellers will step in with lower prices. Low-price stores and other discounters pressure their competitors to operate efficiently and keep their priees down. HIGH ADVERTISING AND PROMOTION COSTS. Modern marketing is also accused of pushing up priees because of heavy advertising and sales promotion. For example, a dozen tablets of a heavily promoted brand of aspirin sell for the same price as 100 tablets of less promoted brands. Differentiated products cosmetics, detergents, toiletries - include promotion and packaging costs that can amount to 40 per cent or more of the manufacturer's price to thy retailer. (Mtics charge that much of the packaging and promotion adds only psychological value to the product rather than real functional value. Retailers use additional promotion - advertising, displays and competitions - that add even more to retail prices. Marketers answer these charges in several ways. First, consumers ^ant more than the merely functional qualities of products. They also want psychological benefits - they want to feel wealthy, beautiful or special. Consumers can usually btiy functional versions of products at lower prices, hut are often willing to pay more for products that also provide desired psychological benefits. Second, branding gives buyers confidence. A brand name implies a certain quality and consumers are willing to pay for well-known brands even if they cost a little more. Third, heavy advertising is needed to inform millions of potential buyers of the merits of a brand. If consumers want to know what is available on the market, they must expect manufacturers to spend large sums of money on advertising. Fourth, heavy advertising and promotion may be necessary for a firm to match competitors' efforts. The business would lose 'share of mind' if it did not match competitive spending. At the same time, companies ;ire cost conscious about promotion and try to spend their money wisely. Finally, heavy sales promotion is needed from time to time because goods are produced ahead of demand in a mass-production economy. Special incentives have to be offered in order to sell inventories. EXCESSIVE MARK-UPS. Critics also charge that some companies mark up goods excessively. They point to the drug industry, where a pill costing 5p to make may cost the consumer 40p to buy. Or to the pricing tactics of perfume manufacturers, who take advantage of customers' ignorance of the true worth of a 50 gram bottle of Joy perfume, while preying on their desire to fulfil emotional needs. Marketers argue that most businesses try to deal fairly with consumers because they want repeat business. Most consumer abuses are unintentional. When shady marketers do take advantage of consumers, they should be reported to industry watchdogs and to other consumer-interest or consumer-protection groups. Marketers also stress that consumers often don't understand the reason for high mark-ups. For example, pharmaceutical mark-ups must cover the costs of purchasing, promoting and distributing existing medicines, plus the high research and development costs of finding new medicines.
• Deceptive Practices Marketers are sometimes accused of deceptive practices that lead consumers to believe they will get more value than they actually do. Deceptive marketing practices fall into three groups: deceptive pricing, promotion and packaging. Deceptive pricing includes practices such as falsely advertising 'factory' or 'whole-
Social Criticisms of Marketing • 45 The ASA advertises its services to those its seeks to protect - the consumer.
If an ad misleads, we're here to stamp it out.
Advertising Standards Authority 2TorringtonPlace London WC1E7HW 0171 5805555 hup://www.asa.org.uk ASA
sale' prices or a large price reduction from a phoney high retail list price. Deceptive promotion includes practices such as overstating the product's features or performance, luring the customer to the store for a bargain that is out of stock, or running rigged contests. Deceptive packaging includes exaggerating package contents through subtle design, not filling the package to the top, using misleading labelling, or describing size in misleading terms. Deceptive practices have led to legislation and other consumer-protection actions. Positive steps have already been taken, for example, with regard to European directives aimed at the cosmetic industry. Council Directive 93/35/EEC of 14 June 1993 introduced far-reaching changes to cosmetic laws. The legislation controls the constituents of cosmetic products and their associated instructions and warnings about use, and specifies requirements relating to the marketing of cosmetic products, which cover product claims, labelling, information on packaging and details about die product's intended function. Where a product claims to remove 'unsightly cellulitc' or make the user !ook '20 years younger', proofs must be documented and made available to the enforcement authorities. These laws also require clear details specifj'ing where animal testing has been carried out on both the finished product and/or its ingredients. The EU has recognized increased public resistance to animal testing and has proposed a limited ban on animal testing for cosmetic ingredients from 1 January 1998. Similar directives are found to regulate industry practices in the United States. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which has the power to regulate 'unfair or deceptive acts or practices', has published several guidelines listing deceptive practices. The toughest problem is defining what is 'deceptive'. For example, some years ago, Shell Oil advertised that Super Shell petrol with platformate gave more mileage than did the same fuel without platformate. Now this was true, but what Shell did not say is that almost all petrol includes platformate. Its defence was that it had never claimed that platformate was found only in Shell petroleum fuel. But even though the message was literally true, the FTC felt that the ad's intent was to deceive. Marketers argue that most companies avoid deceptive practices because such practices harm their business in the long run. Tf consumers do not get what they expect, they will switch to more reliable products. In addition,
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We Have Ways of Making You Buy! Britain's life assurance industry was severely criticized for misselling, offering poor value to customers who surrender their policies early, and exploiting customers' ignorance - in short, for breaking the rules! In the early 1990s LAUTRO, the body that regulated the selling of life insurance, fined at least a dozen life assurance companies a total of nearly Slmillion for failing to ensure that potential customers were fully informed about different policies. Those singled out included Scottish Widows, Guardian Royal Exchange, General Accident, Commercial Union and Norwich Union, In June 1994, the Office of Fair Trading (OFT), a government watchdog, published its report on 60 of the United Kingdom's largest life insurers. It criticized firms for poor 'surrender values' many household names, the symbols of probity and financial solidity, were short-changing customers who cashed in long-term policies early. London & Manchester, London Life, MGM, Refuge, Royal Life, Tunbridge Wells, Abbey Life, Allied Dunbar, Confederation Life, Cornhill Insurance, Irish Life. Midland Life and Reliance Mutual were all found to offer atiro surrender value at the end of the first year for two types of policy investigated by the OFT. So, if a customer cancelled a £100 a month, ten-year savings plan after only one year, she got no money back from the insurer. There were also wide disparities in the surrender values of life insurance policies, although such information was seldom disclosed to buyers. What is all the fuss about, though? Why should companies he penalized because their investors want to cash in earlier on long-term savings plans? Regulators believe that life insurers had exploited customers' ignorance and vulnerability, selling them products that generated big profits for the sellers, but were unsuited to the buyer. In many cases, insurers were accused of filling the pockets of salespeople, senior managers and, in the case of limited companies, the shareholders,
by extracting fat commission from high-pressure selling schemes that customers did not really want or need. Sales 'tricks' were not unusual in the industry. For example, some salespeople sent letters to married women, talking about their company and appending a blank form with a piece of paper telling the woman: This is what you get when your husband dies,' Although the surrender values offered by the insurers in later years were reasonable, the Securities and Investments Board suggested that one-quarter to one-third of all policies were cashed in during the first two years alone. A number of companies actually profited from early lapse rates, and many people holding policies with companies which have relatively high lapse rates were actually worse off than if they had no policy at all. Lapses are insurers' profits! The insurance companies' response is that customers have the product literature to help them assess their policies. The OFT argues that the idea that customers could understand readily the surrender values of their policies simply by reading the product literature is quite false. 'These things are not only obscure to the average consumer but to the informed consumer as well,' says John Mills, head of the OFT's consumer policy division. So, what fuels this pervasive practice in the industry? One answer is that not nearly as many people would have bought life insurance if the products had not. been actively sold to them. Another is that few consumers have the expertise to compare the costs and benefits of different policies, What consumers buy is all about how quickly the sales rep gets to them and how persuasive he or she is. Although many independent financial advisers ensure that clients get good value for money from respectable insurers, there are many others who are forced to sell poor-quality products, because they are trapped in a commission structure that requires them to sell or starve. One insurance sales representative says: 'You would see that some prospective clients might
Social Criticisms of Marketing * 47
have to struggle to pay the premiums, hut because your livelihood depended on it, you would play on their emotions to try to sell them something.' Another salesperson commented: 'We were licensed to give best advice, but it wasn't. A superior product offered by another company would not be mentioned.' Salespeople argue that they were often put under increasing pressure and encouraged by a range of incentives, some of them fairly obvious, such as bottles of whisky and holidays in the Bahamas. There were bizarre punishments for those that did badly: at one branch of a big insurer, the worst performer over the previous month would be told to walk around the building for a day dressed in ladies' underwear. Regulators and watchdogs now address two key issues: what customers are told about products and the people selling them; and self-regulation versus government (statutory) regulation. The OFT introduced disclosure rules in January 1995. Salespeople must now inform the consumer how much commission they take for selling a given policy and need to spend hours with customers filling in forms with personal details. Predictably, independent financial advisers protest that disclosure will force many of them out of business. After years of deliberately confusing consumers with jargon, blinding them with technical language and pressurizing to do the deal, the industry has lost the public's trust. Bad publicity on mis-selling has also affected industry-wide sales. To compound the industry's problems, new entrants, including Direct Line, Marks & Spencer and Virgin Direct, began to sell life
insurance and pension products over the phone from the raid-1990s. Not only are these helping to drive prices down, but their image as the new 'clean' competitors from outside the industry, which truly apply 'customer first' marketing philosophy, is helping to wake die industry up. They are doing the traditional insurance companies no end of good. The moral of the story is clear. Using trickery or vigorous sales approaches to pressure customers unfairly into buying financial products (or any product or service) that they either do not need or would do better to buy elsewhere, docs not make sound marketing sense. Consumers become disenchanted or disillusioned or withdraw consumption altogether. High-pressure selling usually backfires on the aggressive sellers. You cannot sell something nobody wants, no matter how you push it! SOURCES: Alison Smith. 'Standard Life's surrender bonus', Fini-mcicd Times (21 November 1994), p. 22; Alison Smith, 'OFT names insurers offering zero first year surrender value 1 , Financial Times (9-10 .July 1994). p. 1; Alison Smith, 'Biiek from the brink', Financial Times (2,1 June 1994), p. 16; Norms Cohen, 'Life insurers criticised for poor surrender values', 'Your lapses are their profits'. Financial TiiiKS (1819.Tune 1994), pp. I. Ill; Peter Marsh, 'We have ways of making you buy', Fimtnuial Times (14 June 1994), p. 18; Peter Marsh, 'When he dies, my dear, all this will bti yours', Financial Times (11-12 Junu 1994J, pp. I, XII; 'All life's troubles', The JSconomist (17 July 1993), pp. 76-7; Kean Brierley, 'A matter of life and death'. Marketing Week (28 June 1995); Andrew Duffy, 'Great British pensions disaster', Business Age (5 July 1995), pp. 40-3; Alan Mitchell, 'Swimming with the sharks', Marketing Business (September 1997), pp 26-30.
consumers usually protect themselves from deception. Most consumers recognize a marketer's selling intent and are carelul when they huy, sometimes to the point of not believing completely true product claims. Theodore Levitt claims that some advertising puffery is bound to occur - and that it may even he desirable: There is hardly a company that would not go down in ruin if it refused to provide fluff, because nohody will huy pure functionality .. Worse, it denies .. man's honest needs and values .. Without distortion, embellishment and elaboration, life would he drab, dull, anguished and at its existential worst . .-1
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High-Pressure Selling Salespeople are sometimes accused of high-pressure selling that persuades people to buy goods they had no thought of buying. It is often said that cars, financial services, property and home improvement plans are sold, not bought. Salespeople are trained to deliver smooth, canned talks to entice purchase. They sell hard because commissions and sales contests promise big prizes to those who sell the most. Marketers know that buyers can often be talked into buying unwanted or unneeded things. A key question is whether industry self-regulatory or trading standards bodies, consumer-protection laws and consumer-interest groups are sufficiently effective in checking and curbing unsavoury sales practices. In this modem era, it is encouraging to note that one or more of these ean work to the advantage of consumers. Or, where malpractices are pervasive, regulators will catch out wrongdoers, who will invariably pay the penalties for irresponsible marketing. This is evident in the ease of the mis-selling of pensions and life assurance policies in the UK market (see Marketing Highlight 2.1),
• Shoddy or Unsafe Products Another criticism is that products lack the quality they should have. One complaint is that products are not made well. Such complaints have been lodged against products and services ranging from home appliances, cars and clothing to home and car repair services. A second complaint is that some products deliver little benefit. In an attempt to persuade customers to buy their brand rather than any other, manufacturers sometimes make claims that are not fully substantiated. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Independent Television Commission (ITC) introduced new rules covering the advertising of medicines and treatments, health claims, and nutrition and dietary supplements, including slimming products. The move, which follows the publication of new advertising rules by the Advertising Standards Authority, brings the ITC in line with public and private sector opinion, and recent European Union legislation governing the advertising and sales of these products. Health claims for food, for example, must now be fully substantiated. Creative ads must guard against encouraging overindulgence in products such as confectionery, so advertisers must pay attention to health implications.4 In markets where many brands are promising a wide array of product benefits, consumers are often left confused. In fact, consumers often end up paying more for product benefits that do not exist (see Marketing Highlight 2.2}. A third complaint concerns product safety. Product safety has been a problem for several reasons, including manufacturer indifference, increased production complexity, poorly trained labour and poor quality control. Consider the following cases of costly and image-dam aging crises brought upon vehicle manufacturers:

In 1990, consumer activists declared the Daihatsu Sportrak as 'potentially unstable' and Suzuki was urged to recall tens of thousands of similar cars. This problem pales by comparison with that faced by the Ford Pinto, which became the symbol of automotive disaster when several people died during the 1970s in fuel tank fires allegedly linked to a design fault,. More recently, Chrysler issued one of the largest product recall notices in the history of the motoring industry, calling back 900,000 vehicles, ranging from pick-ups to a selection of 'people carriers' including the
Social Criticisms of Marketing • 49
'Shopper's Friend' Brand Benefit Claims
Marketing Highlight ~ o
The Consumers' Association (GA) in the United Kingdom, an independent, self-appointed organization, seeks to police the goods and services offered by eonsumerproduets manufacturers and business sectors, and aims to improve the quality of people's purchasing decisions, ft carries out independent research and tests on all sorts of consumer goods and services, ranging from soap powders, kettles and motor cars to freerange turkeys, holidays and insurance policies, and then rates these based on 'value for money' and effectiveness criteria. Its public face, WJiich? magazine, is an important channel used to provide consumers with a counterpoint to the persuasive marketing of consumer goods and services. Wliifh? fo'rms the 'mouthpiece' of the Association, playing the role of 'shopper's friend' by offering unbiased views on brand features, quality and/or performance, and advice on 'best buy' and 'good value' purchases. Generally, the criteria for any investigation are: How many people will it affect? How important an issue is it? Can the CA do anything about it? Here is an example of a toothpaste test reported in one issue of the CA's Which? magazine. The test sought to substantiate the oral health, including medicinal (e.g. relief from the pain of sensitive teeth), claims made in toothpaste advertising. The report lists the main claims made for toothpastes and picks out the brands th;it the test team believes can substantiate their claims and those which cannot. Three main types of 'claim' are: (1) prevention of gum disease/anti-plaque property, (2) protection of sensitive teeth; and {3} tartar control. To substantiate claims, the test team turns to (a) evidence from clinical trials and (b) evidence of 'availability of actives': that is, that the effective ingredient has not been inactivated by any of the other chemicals in the toothpaste. Unsubstantiated claims are ones where the manufacturer did not provide the test team with evidence either of suitable clinical trials on the particular toothpaste or of'availability of actives'. This means not that the
toothpaste is ineffective, but that the test panel has not seen enough proof that the manufacturer can substantiate its dental health claim(s). Table 1 shows results for the manufacturers' and own-label brands of toothpaste tested. The CA asserts that no manufacturer should make claims for its products, on packaging or in advertising, unless they can be substantiated by evidence of a reasonable standard. It draws attention to recommended toothpaste brands, but highlights the fact that many expensive toothpastes marked for sensitive teeth do not contain fluoride, so will not offer protection against decay. Consumer-interest bodies like the CA help to improve buyers' decisions by offering impartial information and guidance on all kinds of purchasing decision. The CA uses expert panels and professionals, together with its own teams of testers and ^valuators, to conduct product evaluations. Testing criteria for products and services are always described in full. Where appropriate, accreditation bodies' results are also consulted and compared with its own test results. Not surprisingly, the CA has made many enemies of manufacturers and businesses that fail to deliver good value to customers. Aggrieved companies often raise questions about the CA's impartiality and accountability. Manufacturers that achieve poor product ratings are invariably given the option to challenge the test results. Many use these findings to direct product-improvement efforts and make positive changes in their products. The CA's printed mission is to 'empower people to make informed consumer decisions'and improve the quality of goods and services. If these goals are truly achieved, then the role of consumer bodies that have the consumer at heart is more important now - in the era of consumerism — than ever before. Brand owners beware! Friend or foe, 'shopper's friend', vigilant as ever, is here to stay.
SOURCES: Consumers' Association, Toothpaste', Which? (July 1992), pp. 372-5; Tom O'Sullivan, 'Shopper's friend counters enemies',Marketing Week {10 February 199S), pp. 22-3.
Chapter 2 Marketing and Society
TABLE 1 CLAIM VERSUS PERFORMANCE OF TOOTHPASTE IS CLAIM SUBSTANTIATED BY TOOTHPASTE PERFORMANCE?
CLAIMS MADE Prevention of gum disease
YES
No
Colgate Gum Protection Formula Mentadent P
Aqua Fresh Triple Protection Asda Anti-Plaque Boots An ti-Plaque Boots Total Care Co-op Anti-Plaque Gateway Fresh Breath An ti-Plaque Gihbs SR Macleans Anti-Plaque Oral B Zendium Tesco Dental Care Minty Blue Gel Waitrose Plaque-Control Superdrug Oral Health Gum Health Formula Boots Formula F
Protection of Asda Sensitive sensitive teeth Boots Formula Gateway Fresh Breath Formula Macleans Sensitive Merttadent S Safeway Sensitive Sainsbury's Oral Health Sensitive Teeth Tesco Sensitive Teeth Formula Sensodyne Original and Mint Sensodyne F Waitrose Sensitive Tartar control Colgate Tartar Control Formula Safeway Tartar Control Crest Tartar Control Suptrdrug Oral Health Tartar Control Crest Ultra Protection Mentadent P Sainsbury's Oral Health Tartar Control Tesco Dental Care Anti-Tartar
Voyager, Wrangler and Jeep Cherokee models, for a variety of reasons in seven different recalls. One of the biggest recalls in 1997, according to figures from the British vehicle inspectorate, was one undertaken by VV, asking 150.000 Golf and Vcnto saloon owners to have their car checked for wiring faults. In 1996, VW also recalled 350,000 of its models worldwide becau.se of a potentially faulty electric cable, as well as some 950,000 Golfs, Jettas, Passats and Corrados because of problems, including a cooling system fault, which could potentially damage engines and injure passengers. Early in 1997, Vauxhall called in more than 39,000 Veetras to check loose fuel pipes. Even Rolls-Royce was forced to check some of its Bentley Continental T sports coupes (at £220,000 apiece) because of concerns tha.t airbags were firing unexpectedly.1'
Social Criticisms c/MccrkeEmg • 51
For years now, consumer protection groups or associations in many countries have regularly tested products for safety, and have reported hazards found in tested products, such as electrical dangers in appliances, and injury risks from lawn mowers and faulty car design. The testing and reporting activities of these organizations have helped consumers make better buying decisions and have encouraged businesses to eliminate product flaws. Marketers may sometimes face dilemmas when seeking to balance consumer needs and ethical eon si derations. For example, no amount of test results can guarantee product safety in cars if consumers value speed and power more than safety features. Buyers might choose a less expensive chain saw without a safety guard, although society or a government regulatory agency might deem it irresponsible and unethical for the manufacturer to sell it. However, most responsible manufacturers want to produce quality goods. The way a company deals with product quality and safety problems can damage or help its reputation. Companies selling poor-quality or unsafe products risk damaging conflicts with consumer groups. Moreover, unsafe products can result in product liability suits and iarge awards for damages. Consumers who are unhappy with a firm's products may avoid its other products and talk other consumers into doing the same. More fundamentally, today's marketers know that self-imposed, high ethical standards, which accompany customer-driven quality, result in customer satisfaction, which in turn creates profitable customer relationships.
• Planned Obsolescence' Critics have charged that some producers follow a programme of planned obsolescence. causing their products to become obsolete before they need replacement. In many cases, producers have been accused of continually changing consumer concepts of acceptable styles in order to encourage more and earlier buying. An obvious example is constantly changing clothing fashions. Producers have also been accused of holding back attractive functional features, then introducing them later to make older models obsolete. Critics claim that this practice is frequently found in the consumer electronics and computer industry. The Japanese camera, watch and consumer electronics companies frustrate consumers because rapid and frequent model replacement has created difficulties in obtaining spare parts for old models; dealers refuse to repair outdated models and planned obsolescence rapidly erodes basic product values. Finally, producers have been accused of using materials and components that will break, wear, rust or rot sooner than they should. For example, many drapery manufacturers are using a higher percentage of rayon in their curtains. They argue that rayon reduces the price of the curtains and has better holding power. Critics claim that using more rayon causes the curtains to fall apart sooner. European consumers have also found, to their annoyance, how rapidly certain European brands of toasters rust - for an appliance that rarely gets into contact with water, this is an amazing technological feat! Marketers respond that consumers like style changes; they get tired of the old goods and want a new look in fashion or a new design in cars. No one has to buy the new look, and if too few people like it. it will simply fail. Companies frequently withhold new features when they are not fully tested, when they add more cost to the product than consumers are willing to pay, and for other good reasons. But they do so at the risk that a competitor will introduce the new feature and steal the market. Moreover, companies often put in new materials to lower their costs and prices. They do not design their products to break down earlier, because they do not want to lose their customers to other brands. Thus, much so-called
Planned obsolescence A strategy qf causing products to become obsolete before they actually need replacement
52 • Chapter 2 Marketing and Society planned obsolescence is the working of the competitive and technological forces in a free society - forces that lead to ever-improving goods and services.
• Poor Service to Disadvantaged Consumers Finally, marketing has been accused of poorly serving disadvantaged consumers. Critics claim that the urban poor often have to shop in smaller stores that carry interior goods and charge higher prices. Marketing's eye on profits also means that disadvantaged consumers are not viable segments to target. The high-income consumer is the preferred target. Clearly, better marketing systems must be built in low-income areas - one hope is to get large retailers to open outlets in low-income areas. Moreover lowincome people clearly need consumer protection. Consumer-protection agencies should take action against suppliers who advertise false values, sell old merchandise as new, or charge too much for credit. Offenders who deliver poor value should be expected to compensate customers, as in the case of many UK pensions providers, who were required to meet mis-selling compensation targets following the disclosure of malpractices by an Office of Fair Trading (OFT) investigation. We now turn to social critics' assessment of how marketing affects society as a whole.
Marketing's Impact on Society as a Whole The marketing system as we - in Europe and other developed economies outside North America — are experiencing it, has been accused of adding to several 'evils' in our society at large. Advertising has been a special target. It has been blamed for creating false wants, nurturing greedy aspirations and inculcating too much materialism in our society.
• False Wants and Too Much Materialism Critics have charged that, in advanced nations such as the USA, the marketing system urges too much interest in material possessions. People arc judged by what they own rather than by what they ore. To be considered successful, people must own a smart-looking house or apartment in a prime residential site, expensive cars and the latest designer label clothes and consumer electronics. Consider, for example, the training-shoe market. These days, training shoes have gone the same way as cameras, watches and mobile phones: functionality is useless without 'tec lino-supremacy' and high style. Take Nike's Air Max Tailwind which features: 'flexi-laces' which stretch to give foot comfort; 'interactive eyestay' for one-movement tightening and adjusting; 'mesh upper' made of lightweight synthetic leather for cooler feet; 'plastic air pockets' filled with sulphur hexailuoride for added cushioning; 'flexible grooves' in the arch of the shoe to allow natural foot movements and give support and 'waffle soles' with grooved treads for traction and support! So sophisticated has it become that it is no longer even enough to say that you have a pair of Nikcs. Its famous tick logo is now more globally visible than the crucifix, so your Nikes had better be a very rare variety and/or very expensive if you expect to seriously impress, Alternatively, you could go for a limited edition Adidas or something slightly underground like DC skate shoes,6
Social Criticisms of Marketing • 53 Is there a similar enchantment with money in Europe? Asia? The rest of the world? It is neither feasible nor appropriate for this chapter to indulge readers in an extensive debate on cross-cultural similarities and dissimilarities in materialistic tendencies and behaviour, and whether marketing is the root cause of these desires. Rather, we acknowledge the phenomenon of the 'yuppie generation' that emerged in the 1980s, symbolizing a new materialistic culture that looked certain to stay. In the 1990s, although many social scientists noted a reaction against the opulence and waste of the 1980s and a return to more basic values and social commitment, our infatuation with material things continues. For example, when asked in a recent poll what they value most in their lives, subjects listed enjoyable work (86 per cent), happy children (84 per cent), a good marriage (69 per cent) and contributions to society (66 per cent). However, when asked what most symbolizes success, 85 per cent said money and the things it will buy.7 Critics view this interest in material things not as a natural state of mind, but rather as a matter of false wants created by marketing. Businesses stimulate people's desires for goods through the force of advertising, and advertisers use the mass media to create materialistic models of the good life. People work harder to earn the necessary money. Their purchases increase the output of the nation's industry, and industry, in turn, uses the advertising media to stimulate more desire for its industrial output. Thus marketing is seen as creating false wants that benefit industry more than they benefit consumers. However, these criticisms overstate the power of business to create needs. People have strong defences against advertising and other marketing tools. Marketers are most effective when they appeal to existing wants rather than when they attempt to create new ones. Furthermore, people seek information when making important purchases and often do not rely on single sources. Consumers ultimately display rational buying behaviour: even minor purchases that may be affected by advertising messages lead to repeat purchases only if the product performs as promised. Finally, the high failure rate of new products shows that companies are not always able to control demand. On a deeper level, our wants and values are influenced not only by marketers, but also by family, peer groups, religion, ethnic background and education. If societies are highly materialistic, these values arose out of basic socialization processes that go much deeper than business and mass media could produce alone. The importance of wealth and material possessions to the overseas Chinese, for example, is explained more by cultural and socialization factors than by sustained exposure to western advertising influences.
• Too Few Social Goods Business has been accused of overselling private goods at the expense of public goods. As private goods increase, they require more public services that are usually not forthcoming. For example, an increase in car ownership (private good) requires more roads, traffic control, parking spaces and police services (public goods). The overselling of private goods results in 'social costs'. For cars, the social costs include excessive traffic congestion, air pollution, and deaths and injuries from car accidents. A way must be found to restore a balance between private arid public goods. One option is to make producers bear the full social costs of their operations. For example, the government could require car manufacturers to build cars with additional safety features and better pollution-control systems. Car makers would then raise their prices to cover extra costs. If buyers found the price of some cars too high, however, the producers of these cars would disappear, and demand would move to those producers that could support both the private and social costs.
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Marketing and Society
• Cultural Pollution Critics charge the marketing system with creating cultural pollution. Our senses are being assaulted constantly by advertising. Commercials interrupt serious programmes; pages of ads obscure printed matter; billboards mar beautiful scenery. These interruptions continuously pollute people's minds with messages of materialism, sex, power or status. Although most people do not find advertising overly annoying (some even think it is the best part of television programming), some critics call for sweeping changes. Marketers answer die charges of 'commercial noise' with the following arguments. First, they hope that their ads reach primarily the target audience. But because of mass-communication channels, some ads are bound to reach people who have no interest in the product and are therefore bored or annoyed. People who buy magazines slanted towards their interests - such as Vogue or Fortune rarely complain about the ads because the magazines advertise products of interest. Second, ads make much of television and radio free, and keep down the costs of magazines and newspapers. Most people think commercials are a small price to pay t'or these benefits.
• Too Much Political Power Another criticism is that business wields too much political power. 'Oil', 'tobacco', •pharmaeeudeals', 'financial services' and 'alcohol' have the support of important politicians and civil servants, who look after an industry's interests against the public interest. Advertisers are accused of holding too much power over the mass media, limiting their freedom to report independently and objectively. The setting up of citizens' charters and greater concern for consumer rights and protection in the 1990s will see improvements, not regression, in business accountability. Fortunately, many powerful business interests once thought to be untouchable have been tamed in the public interest. For example, in the United States, Ralph Nader, consumerism campaigner, caused legislation that forced the car industry to build more safety into its cars, and the Surgeon General's Report resulted in cigarette companies putting health warnings on their packages. Moreover, because the media receive advertising revenues from many different advertisers, it is easier to resist the influence of one or a few of them. Too much business power tends to result in eounterforces that check and offset these powerful interests. Let us now take a look at the criticisms that business critics have levelled at companies' marketing practices.
Marketing's Impact on Other Businesses Critics also charge that companies' marketing practices can harm other companies and reduce competition. Three problems sire involved: acquisition of competitors, marketing practices that create barriers to entry, and unfair competitive marketing practices. Critics claim that firms are harmed and competition reduced when companies expand by acquiring competitors rather than by developing their own new products. In the car industry alone there has been a spate of acquisitions over the past decade: General Motors bought the British sports-ear maker, Lotus; Ford acquired 75 per cent of Britain's Aston Martin, which makes hand-built, high-
Citizen and Public Actions w Regulate Marketing
performance cars, and Jaguar; Fiat absorbed Ferrari; BMW has taken over the Rover Group; Volkswagen controls Skoda.' These and many large international acquisitions in other industries, such as food, telecommunications and pharmaceuticals, have caused concern that more arid more competitors will he absorbed and that competition will be reduced. Acquisition is a complex subject. Acquisitions can sometimes be good for society. The acquiring company may gain economies of scale that lead to lower costs and lower prices. A well-managed company may take over a poorly managed company and improve its efficiency. An industry that was not very competitive might become more competitive after the acquisition. But acquisitions can also be harmful and arc therefore closely regulated by the government. Critics have also claimed that marketing practices bar new companies from entering an industry. The use of patents and heavy promotion spending can tie up suppliers or dealers to keep out or drive out competitors. People concerned with anti-trust regulation recognize that some barriers are the natural result of the economic advantages of doing business on a large scale. Other barriers could be challenged by existing and new laws. For example, some critics have proposed a progressive tax on advertising spending to reduce the role of selling costs as a substantial barrier to entry. Finally, some firms have in fact used unfair competitive marketing practices with the intention of hurting or destroying other firms. They may set their prices below costs, threaten to cut off business with suppliers, or discourage the buying of a competitor's products. Various laws work to prevent such predatory competition. It is difficult, however, to prove that the intent or action was really predatory. When Laker Airlines first attacked British Airways' most profitable routes, the latter delayed its counterattack. Laker began to borrow huge sums of money to expand its fleet. It was laden with vast debt and interest obligations on its huge dollar loans when the American dollar appreciated against other currencies. British Airways then aggressively cut prices on Laker's most lucrative routes, restoring these to normal levels only after driving Laker into bankruptcy and out of the competitive arena altogether.'1 The question is whether this was unfair competition or the healthy competition of a more efficient carrier against the less efficient,
Citizen aiicl Public Actions to Regulate Marketing Because some people view business as the cause of many economic and social ills, grass-roots movements have arisen from time to time to keep business in line. The two main movements have been consumerism and environmentalist!!.
Consumerism Western business firms have been the targets of organized consumer movements on three occasions. Consumerism has its origins in the United States. The first consumer movement took place in the early 190(>s. It was fuelled by rising prices, Upton Sinclair's writings on conditions in the meat industry, and scandals in the drug industry. The second consumer movement, in the mid-1930s, was sparked by an upturn in consumer prices during the Great Depression and another drug scandal. The third movement began in the 1960s, Consumers had become better educated, products had become more complex and hazardous, and people were
•
55
56 • Chctpter 2 Marketing and Society
consumerism .An organised movement nfaiti&ens and government agencies to improve the rights and p (5 December 1996), pp 50-2; Dyan Mitchan, 'A more tolerant generation', Fttrbes (8 September 1997), pp. 46-7; Barbara Beck, 'The luxury of longer life, a survey of the economics of ageing'. The Ecanfirnist (21 January 1996), pp. 3-5; David Nicholson-Lord, 'Mass leisure olass is on th« way. say forecasters', Mtteptrtuienr (IS April 1994), p. 4; see also Leisure futures, vol. 1 (London: Henley Centre, 1994); James U. McNeal, 'Growing up in the market', AmeritMn Demographics {October 1992), pp. 46-50; Diane Crispell and William H. Freys 'American maturity', ^American Demographics (March 1993), pp. .11-42; Melindcr Beck, 'The fieezer boom', in 'The 21st century family', a special issue aiNewavieek (Winter/Spring 1990). pp. 62-7.
programme is still high on politicians' agendas. Eastern and central European countries, including former Soviet bloc states, are seeking to participate in the EU, which, in the longer term, could become a reality. The EU, in its present state, and in a potentially enlarged form, presents huge challenges for domestic and international marketers. We will discuss international marketing issues in more detail in Chapter 5. In general, marketers operating, in the vastly expanded EU must recognize the great diversity across member Mates. Unification strives to achieve harmonization of rules and regulations, which will affect business practices across the Union. Many marketers believe the single European market will lead to convergence in consumer tastes. Global advertising agencies like Saatchi & Saatchi and Young and Rubicam were strong supporters of the idea of the 'Euro con sinner'. However, consumer needs, values, beliefs, habits and lifestyles differ across individual country markets, just as spending power and consumption patterns arc likely to vary. Businesses will do
157
15S • Chapter 4 The Marketing Knitiranmeni
well to identify national and regional differences, and to develop appropriate marketing strategies that take on board this diversity. Where there are European consumers who display similar cultural values and tastes for particular goods and services, then pan-European strategies may be more cost-effective. For example, the internationalism of snob items, such as Kolex watches or Cartier jewellery, which appeal to a small number of like-minded consumers, or high-fashion purchases like Swatch watches and Benetton clothes, which pander to the younger generation of dedicated fashion followers, lend themselves to panEuropean marketing or advertising. In most markets, however, firms have found that the 'one sight, one sound, one sell' dictum loses out to the more effective strategy of customization. Even Coca-Cola, arch exponent of globalism, tailors the marketing of its drinks to suit different markets. Kronenhourg, France's most popular beer, is soid to a mass market with the eternal images of France, like cafes, boules and Citroen 2CVs. In the United Kingdom, Kronenbourg is presented as a drink for 'yuppies'. Unilever customizes its advertisements for Impulse, a body spray. In the UK, the handsome young fellow who gets a whiff of Impulse from the woman nearby presents her with a bunch of flowers. In the Italian version, Romeo offers the woman a rose. Whether the Euroconsumer is a myth or reality is widely debated today. Marketers must address a marketing basic: identify consumer needs and respond to them. Converging lifestyles, habits and tastes may often not mean converging needs. Europe remains a pot-pourri of cultures and systems, which present immense marketing opportunities for sellers. Although soeial and demographic factors and the marketing strategics of multinational consumer goods companies may combine to make lifestyles of different European (and rising wealthy Asian) nations more alike, diversity will feature just as much as convergence in the new world economy. Companies that overlook diversity in favour of pan-European or .global strategies must carefully develop and execute their standardized approaches/' We discuss pan-European versus standardized marketing practices in greater depth in the next chapter.
Economic Environment Economic environment Factors that affevt connitincr buying potmer and spending patterns.
Markets require buying power as well as people. The economic environment consists of factors that affect consumer purchasing power and spending patterns. Marketers should he aware of the following predominant economic trends.
Income Distribution and Changes in Purchasing Power Global upheavals in technology and communications over the 1990s brought about a shift in the balance of economic power from the West (mainly North American, Canadian and western European nations) towards the rapidlyexpanding economies of the Asian Pacific Rim. Many of the Asian 'tiger' economies, notably South Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore, were enjoying annual growth rates in excess of 7 per cent, compared to the 2-3 per cent found in western Europe and the USA. Official statistics suggest that, by 2010, purchasing power income per head in countries like Singapore and South Korea will exceed that of the United States. Economic growth projections suggest that Europe will drop down the economic rankings. Assuming annual growth in western Europe and the United States of 2.5 per cent, and 6 per cent in Asia as a whole, the share of world grows domestic product (C.DP) taken by Asian developing countries, including China and India, could rise to 28 per cent in 2010 from 18 per cent in 1990. Western Europe's share will fall to 17 per cent from 22 per
L
The Company's Maeroenvtronment • 159 cent, while the United States will drop to 18 per cent from 23 per cent.7 However, in June 1997, Asia's economic miracle came to an end. Economic and financial turmoil struck some of the fastest-grow ing countries in the region. The roots of the Asian economic crisis van' from country to country. Generally, the seeds of trouble lay in headlong economic growth and policies and practices that resulted in over-burdened financial systems. The Asian 'tiger' economies attracted floods of foreign investment which increased land and asset prices. Lending soared. Authorities embarked on huge, often economically questionable, infrastructure projects - new cities, railroads, highways, power stations - which brought little return on investment. The region's currencies were pegged to the US dollar, which had been appreciating in recent years. Country after country saw their currency depreciate as the crisis unfolded. Moreover, the region's exporters were gradually becoming uncompetitive. Many countries suffered from 'crony capitalism' in which authorities encouraged banks to lend to politically well connected businesses. Close neighbour, Japan, and the world's second biggest economy, has also become vulnerable to the crisis, as its financial institutions are big lenders to the rest of the region.s Before the Asian financial crisis developed, it hod become almost an article of faith that the region would maintain perpetual growth. Business analysts believe that, where authorities are committed to appropriate reforms, recovery will be possible. Meanwhile, authorities must adopt measures to arrest further decline and to prevent the turmoil from spreading even wider. Although there has been a narrowing of the wealth and living standards gap between the developed western and rising Asian countries in recent decades, the uncertain economic climate in the Asian economies has important implications for international marketers. They must determine how changing incomes affect purchasing power and how they translate into marketing threats and opportunities for the firm. Where consumer purchasing power is reduced, as in countries experiencing economic collapse or in an economic recession, value-far-money becomes a key purchasing criterion. Marketers must pursue vaktv-based marketing to capture and retain price-conscious customers during lean economic times, unlike boom periods when consumers become literally addicted to personal consumption.'Rather than offering high quality at a high price, or lesser quality at very low prices, marketers have to look for ways to offer the more financially cautious buyers greater value just the right combination of product quality and good service at a fair price.10 Consumers with the greatest purchasing power are likely to belong to the higher sociocconomic groups, whose rising incomes mean that their spending patterns are 5ess susceptible to economic downturns than lower-income groups. So, marketers must determine a population's mcome distribution. The upper economic strata of a society become primary targets for expensive luxury goods, the middle income groups are more careful about spending, but can usually afford some luxuries sometimes, while the lower strata will afford only basic food, clothing and shelter needs. In some countries, an underclass exists - people permanently living on state welfare and/or below the poverty line - which has little purchasing power, often struggling to make even the most basic purchases.
Changing Consumer Spending Patterns Table 4.1 shows how European consumer expenditure on different products varies. Generally, the total expenditures made by households tend to van' for
160 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment
Table 4.1
European consumer expenditure by product , 1990 (% of total
AiXJOHOLIC
NON-ALCOHOLIC
DRINK
DRINK
16.8 16.0 14.8 16.6 15.1 25.4 17.3 41.8 22.3 18.8 13.7 15.1 34.6 24.4. 15.2 11.1
2.3 2.8 3.1 3.3 1.9 10.0 2.3 2.2 12.1 1.2 1.4 1.1 L5 1.1 2.7 6.3
29.0 11.5 18.4 19-2 24.0 18.7 29.9 26.2 25.1 22.7 27.8 47.2
11.6 9.5 9.5 11.2 6.4 12.2 3.6
FOOD EU members Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany E Germany W Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden United Kingdom EfTA members Iceland Liechtenstein Norway Switzerland Eastern Europe Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Hungary Poland Romania USSR Yugoslavia Others Cyprus Gibraltar Malta Monaco Turkey
19.7 31.0 26.1 17.7 32.9
expenditures
TOBACCO
CLOTHING
FOOTWEAR
HOUSING
0.7 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.6 1.0 1.5 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 1.0
1.9 1.4 2.9 1.7 1.0 3.8 1.7 2.5 4.9 1.6 4.7 1.8 1.3
8.8 4.9 4.7 4.1 5.5 10.2 7.5 6.4 5.1 6.8 5.6 5.0 4.9 5.3 5.4 4.9
2.3 1.0 0.7 0.8 1.1 2.3 1.6 0.8 1.3 2.0 0.6 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0
17.8 12.1 19.7 14.3 12.2 1.5 15.6 10.3 5.3 10.6 11.9 11.7 8.9 12.6 17.6 10.2
2.1 6.0 3.4 4.7
0.5 1.1 1.1 0.8
2.4 2.0 2.3
6.2 3.9
1.0 1.3 0.9
10.9 18.3 12.2 13.5
5.0
1.8 1.0 1.9
2.2 2.6 5.8
2.5 1.8 0.9 1.0
2.1 1.7 2.3 2.4 2.0
12.4 7.4 6.3 6.9 8.1 7.9 15.6 8.5
1.4 2.6 1.4 1.2 1.6 2.1 3.6 2.0
4.8 2.0 3.1 4.8 16.3 2.0 3.2 2.4
1.3
1.3
14.8 9.8
1.1 2.0
3.7 0.5 2.7
1.0 3.4 1.3 9.5
6.2 13.5 4.3 12.5 9.0
1.4 1.1 4.5 2.3 1.2
1.3 1.9 2.6
1.6
8.5 6.1
R.I
7.2 4.7
2.2 1.6 1.8
The Company's Macroenvironmcnt • 161
HOUSEHOLD FUELS
5.8 4.2 6.3 3.4 6.8 0-8 4.1 3.2 5.4 3,8 7.5 5,5 3.] 4.0 3.2
3.6 7.0 4.5 4.0 2.6 3.2 2.6 2.5 0.9 3.8 9.0 2.0 2.4 6.9 5.7
HOUSEHOLD GOODS & SERVICES
7.5
12.4
6.7 7.1 8-2
12.1
9.8 8.3 7.1 8.9 8.5
8.0 6.2 6.8 6,3 5.3
11.4 6.0
7.0 5.0 9.8
14.1 16.2
6.8 6.6 5.5
8.0 4.4
11.1
9.1
10.2 13.9 10.6
HEALTH 5.2
11.2
1.7 3.6 9.3 4.0 5.2 3.1 1.5 6.4 6.7
12.2 3.0
3.8 1.6 1.2 6.7
12.6
TRANSPORT
COMMUNICATIONS
LEISURE
14.5 11.8 13.8 15.9 14.8
1.9 1.0 1.3
5,9 10.2
15.0
1.7 1.7 1.3 1.1
10.5
1.3 3.0 1.0
9.9 2.4
5.7 7.2 8.4
12,3 17.2 19.5 16.6 21.5 20.6 19.8 30.4
9.0
10.8
9.2 9.9
13.5 13.4
5.2
18.9 19.2
2.0 9.9
10.0 11.9 16.4 9.7 11.0 12.5 16.8 12.8
4.1
3,6 3.0 6.7 6.1 7.7 4.0 2.7 4.1
6.9 8.3 8.6 9.0 8.4 4.1 2.9 8.6
2.4 8.3 3.8
17.1 9.7
15.3 11.1
1.5
8.8
11.8 12.5 11.3
11,2
2.1
17.0 10.6 6.0
1.8
9.3 9.5 7.4 6.2 4,0 9.9 9.2 3.0
14.0
6.9 4.6
0.3
13.5
8.6 6.4 8.3 4.8 5.4 9.1 7.0 7.3 1.6
OTHERS 8.8
10.0 14.4 19.2 14.1 20.2
7,2
4.7
5.9
2.7 8.7 2.0
33.9
8.6 2.4
16.2
5.0 7.5 3,0 3.1
TOTAL
100,0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100,0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
162 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment
Engel's laws Differences nfited over a century ago by Ernst Engel in haw people shift thcii ,spen mg across load, housing, transportation, health i cure, and other goods and services categories as family income rises. natural environment Natural resources that are needed us inputs by affected by marketing
essential categories of goods and services, with food, housing and transportation often using up most household income. Marketers also want to identify how spending patterns of consumers at different income levels vary. Some of these differences were noted over a century ago by Ernst Engel, who studied how people shifted their spending as their income rose. He found that as family income rises, the percentage spent on food declines, the percentage spent on housing remains constant (except for such utilities as gas. electricity and public services, which decrease), and both the percentage spent on other categories and that devoted to savings increase. Engel's laws have generally been supported by later studies. Changes in major economic variables such as income, cost of living, interest rates, and savings and borrowing patterns have a large impact on the mar he tplace. Companies watch these variables by using economic forecasting. Businesses do not have to be wiped out by an economic downturn or caught short , , nr-,., , .. . ,; , in a boom. With adequate warning, they can take advantage of chanees m the economic environment.
Natural Environment The natural environment involves the natural resources that are needed as inputs by marketers or that are affected by marketing activities. Environmental concerns have grown steadily during the past two decades. Protection of the natural environment will remain a crucial worldwide issue facing business and the public. In many cities around the world, air and water pollution have reached dangerous levels. Concern continues to mount about the depletion of the earth's ozone layer and the resulting 'greenhouse effect', a dangerous warming of the earth. And many of us fear that we will soon he buried in our own rubbish. Marketers should be aware of four trends in the natural environment,
• Shortages of Raw Materials Air and water may seem to be infinite resources, hut some groups sec long-run dangers. They warn of the potential dangers that propellants used in aerosol cans pose to the ozone layer. Water shortage is already a big problem in some parts of the world. Renewable resources, such as forests and food, also have to be used wisely. Companies in the forestry business are required to reforest timberlands in order to protect the soil and to ensure enough wood supplies to meet future demand. Food supply can be a critical problem because more and more of our limited farmable land is being developed for urban areas. Non-renewable resources, such as oil, coal and various minerals, pose a serious problem. Firms making products that require these increasingly scarce resources face large cost increases, even if the materials do remain available. They may not find it easy to pass these costs on to the consumer. However, firms engaged in research and development and in exploration ean help by developing new sources and materials.
• Increased Cost of Energy One non-renewable resource - oil - has created the most serious problem for future economic growth. The large industrial economies of the world depend heavily on oil. and until economical energy substitutes can be developed, oil will continue to dominate the world political and economic picture. Big increases in the price of oil during the 1970s, and dramatic events like the 1991 Gulf War that affect oil availability, have spurred the search for alternative forms of energy.
The Company's Maeruenvironmcnt • 163 Different countries vary in their concern/or the environment. For example, partly because of ecological devastation like [hat shnvan here informer East Germany, the German government TIOTO vigorously pursues environment quality.
Many companies are searching for practical ways to harness solar, nuclear, wind and other forms of energy. In fact, hundreds of firms already offer products that use solar energy for heating homes and other uses. Others are directing their research and development efforts to produce high energy-efficient technologies to meet customers' needs. For example, the tyre company Michelin recently introduced its energy low-resistance tyres that are said to offer a 5 per cent reduction in fuel consumption. Car makers Ford, Volkswagen, Opel and Peugeot-Citroen have all produced a new generation of sophisticated eompact cars whose small dimensions and low weight make them the front-runners in the race towards the environmentalists' 'year-2000 holy grail' - fuel consumption of just 3 litres per 100km.11
• increased Pollution Industry has been largely blamed for damaging the quality of the natural environment. The 'green' movement draws attention to industry's 'dirty work': the disposal of chemical and nuclear wastes, the dangerous mercury levels in the ocean, the quantity of chemical pollutants in the soil and food supply, and the littering of the environment with non-biodegradable bottles, plastics and other packaging materials. Many companies, especially those at the 'grubbier' ends of manufacturing, often complain about the cost of fulfilling their obligations to 'clean up' regulations or to produce new greener technologies. On the other hand, more alert managers have adapted quickly to rising public environmental concerns, which have created marketing opportunities for firms (see Marketing Highlight 4.3). Many firms are responding to public environmental concerns with more ecologically sensitive goods, recyclable or biodegradable packaging, improved pollution controls and more energy-efficient operations. Niche green markets, where environmentally sensitive consumers are prepared to pay a premium price for green benefits, have emerged in sectors ranging from cosmetics, toiletries and detergents to passenger cars. However, most consumers worldwide are more likely to make trade-offs between green advantages and product quality and
164 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Envi
Filthy Lucre
Marketing Highlight
Some firms complain that Europe's tough environmental regulations are driving them out of business. Many others, however, are cleaning up. Environmental pressures are one firm's expensive obligation, hut another's chance for profit. Back in 1992, the San Diego (US)-based Environmental Business Journal reported that die market in western Europe for environmental goods and services was worth around 894 billion, only MO billion less than the market in the United States. But Europe's environmental industry is growing at 7 per cent a year. There are now over 16,000 environmental firms in Europe. The industry is attracting big players, including America's Waste Management, Asea Brown Boveri's Flakt, and Lurgi. which is part of Germany's Metallgesellschaft. Germany is Europe's largest and toughest 'environmental state'. Germany's environmental laws have often ended up as the EU's environmental policy. Germany spends 1.55 per cent of its GDP on environmental investment. It is also the world's leading exporter of environmental technology. The United States comes a close second. Every time the EU adopts a Germansponsored 'green' law, it creates export opportunities for both German and their rival environmental firms elsewhere in Europe. For example, a European directive will force Europe's big towns to have sewage treatment plants by
2000, with its small towns to follow by 2005, The primitive state of sewage treatment in some parts of Europe means lots of orders for new plants. Some big operators like France's Generates des Eaux, Lyonnaise des Eaux Dumez and Saur. Bouygues's subsidiary, have successfully expanded abroad, including the cough German market, by giving public authorities in European countries a one-stop sliop: that is, they finance, build and operate water-treatment plants. Waste management - collecting, transporting and disposal of solid rubbish - accounts for just under .13 per cent of the total western Europe environment market, and is the biggest single market for environmental firms in the European Union. New recycling laws, particularly in Germany, are creating fresh opportunities for many companies. The complexity of EU green directives and national laws also makes for a booming business in environmental consultancy, particularly in the areas of environmental auditing and risk management. Analysts predict that the green business will keep growing over the remaining decade. With it will grow clever companies that have learnt to turn trash into cash!
4.3
SOURCE: Adapted from 'Pollution: the money in Europe's muds', The Ecantimist (20 November 1993), pp. 109-10.
performance benefits in their purchasing decision. So, although environmental pressures upon businesses in the decade ahead are expected to escalate, firms must seek to balance both the ecological and performance benefit expectations of the mass of consumers.!-
• Government Intervention in Natural Resource Management In most countries, industry has been pressured rather than persuaded to 'go green'. Environmental legislation has toughened up in recent years and businesses can expect this to continue in the foreseeable future. Recession in leading world economies over the early 1990s, however, forced governments to look at the potential of voluntary agreements with industry. The idea is to help industry meet environmental standards cost-effectively.
The Company's Macroenvironment • 165 A successful case is Holland's National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP), which was first introduced in J 989 and set tight targets for pollution reduction. Some industries agreed to tougher pollution controls in return for greater government flexibility over their implementation. Although firms knew that failure to co-operate meant harsher laws would follow, the NEPP did provide a channel for government-industry dialogue and co-operation. Detailed plans were agreed with seetors accounting for 6070 per cent of Holland's environmental pollution. Deals with oil refineries in Rotterdam helped to cut smog and sulphur dioxide emissions. Agreements with packaging firms led to a decline in the volume of municipal waste in 1992, the first time since 1945. Ammonia output also declined sharply,u In most developed western nations, well-organized seetors, such as oils, chemicals, pharmaceutical^ and food, are more likely to reach common agreements with government agencies and their plans for environmental control. The joh, many argue, is still incomplete. Smaller firms and the least organized sector households - are generally a long way away from signing up to total 'greenery'. For businesses and industries, environmental issues and government intervention are unlikely to vanish. Clever marketers should remain alert and proactive in the search for new green solutions to meet the world's environmental and natural resource dilemmas. Instead of opposing regulation, marketers should help develop solutions to the material and energy problems facing the world.
Technological Environment The technological environment is perhaps the most dramatic force now shaping our destiny. Technology has released such wonders as penicillin, organ transplants and notebook computers. It has also released such horrors as the nuclear bomb, nerve gas and the machine gun, and such mixed blessings as cars, televisions and credit cards. Our attitude towards technology depends on whether we are more impressed with its wonders or its blunders. Every new technology replaces an older technology. Transistors decimated the vacuum-tube industry, xerography killed the carbon-paper business, ears and roads hurt the railways, and compact discs hurt vinyl records. When old industries fought or ignored new technologies, their businesses declined. New technologies create new markets and opportunities. The marketer should watch the following trends in technology.
Fast Pace of Technological Change Many of today's common products were not available a hundred years ago: televisions, home freezers, automatic dishwashers, electronic computers, contraceptives, earth satellites, personal computers, compact disc players, videoeassette recorders, facsimile machines, mobile phones. The list is unending! Companies that fail to anticipate and keep up with technological change soon find their products outdated. But keeping pace with technological change is becoming more challenging for firms today. Technology life cycles are getting shorter. Take the typewriter. The firstgeneration modern mechanical typewriter dominated the market for 25 years. Subsequent generations had shorter lives - 15 years for electromechanical models, 7 years for electronic versions and 5 years Tor first-generation microprocessorbased ones. Other examples of fast technological change are found. The average life of some computer software products, for example, is now well under one year. Firms must track technological trends and determine whether or not these changes will affect their products' continued ability to fulfil customers' needs.
technological environment Forces tliat create new technologies, creating jictc product and market opportunities.
166 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment As t/ii's Siemens ad suggests, research and development has changed considerably over [he years. Lone inventors have been replaced by research teams employed by large companies or other organizations.
SIEMENS 1895. That was then.
1993. This is now.
Technologies arising in unrelated industries can also affect the firm's fortunes. The mechanical watch industry was overtaken by manufacturers of electronic components seeking new applications and growth opportunities for their quartz technology. Businesses must assiduously monitor their technological environment to avoid missing new product and market opportunities.
• High R&D Budgets Technology and innovations require heavy investments in research and development. It is not uncommon for pharmaeeutieals companies, for example, to spend £150-200 million to develop a new drug. High R & I) spending is also a feature of many industries including cars, communications, computers, aerospace, engineering, entertainment and consumer electronics. Some companies spend billions on R & D each year. A recent study showed that the international top 200 companies devoted an average 4,85 per cent of 1993 sales to R & D, General Motors of the United States was the world's biggest spender with a budget of more than $4 billion (£2.6 billion), followed by German engineering group DaimlerBenz, Ford Motor of the United States and Japan's Hitachi.14 In recent years, there has been a marked increase in collaborative technological research efforts between western governments and industries. In Europe, this niood spawned subsidized programmes, such as Esprit. Eureka and Jessi, and in the USA schemes such as Sematech and MCC. These programmes stemmed from two nifu'n concerns; first, the soaring cost of R & D and the difficulty, even for big companies, of mastering a wide range of technologies; and second, the increasing international competition, mainly from Japan, in electronics and related industries. There are mixed views on the success of these programmes, although collaboration has helped break down barriers between rival firms and stimulated the dissemination of know-how.13
• Concentration on Minor Improvements As a result of the high cost of developing and introducing new technologies, many companies are tinkering - making minor product improvements - instead of
Tlie Company's Macroenvironnmnt • 167 gambling on substantial innovations. The high costs and risks of commercialization i'ailure make firms take this cautious approach to their R & D investment. Most companies arc content to put their money into copying competitors' products, making minor feature and style improvements, or offering simple extensions of current brands. Thus much research is in danger of being defensive rather than offensive.
• Increased Regulation As products become more complex, people need to know that they are safe. Thus, government agencies investigate and ban potentially unsafe products. In the EU and America, complex regulations exist for testing new drugs. The US Federal Food and Drug Administration, for example, is notorious for its strict enforcement of drug testing and safety rules. Statutory and industry regulatory bodies exist to set safety standards for consumer products and penalize companies that fail to meet them. Such regulations have resulted in much higher research costs and in longer times between new-product ideas and their introductions. Marketers should be aware of these regulations when seeking and developing new products. Marketers need to understand the changing technological environment and the ways that new technologies can serve customer and human needs. They need to work closely with R & D people to encourage more market-oriented research. They must also be alert to the possible negative aspects of any innovation that might harm users or arouse opposition.
Political Environment Marketing decisions are strongly affected by developments in the political environment. The political environment consists of laws, government agencies and pressure groups that influence and limit various organizations and individuals in a given society.
• Legislation Regulating Business Even the most liberal advocates of free-market economies agree that the system works best with at least some regulation. Well-conceived regulation can encourage competition and ensure fair markets for goods and services. Thus governments develop public policy to guide commerce - sets of laws and regulations that limit business for the good of society as a whole. Almost ever;' marketing activity is subject to a wide range of laws and regulations. Understanding the public policy implications of a particular marketing activity is not a simple matter. First, there are many laws created at different levels: for example, in the EU, business operators are subject to European Commission, individual member state and specific local regulations; in the USA, laws are created at the federal, state and local levels, and these regulations often overlap. Second, the regulations are constantly changing - what was allowed last year may now be prohibited. In the single European market, deregulation and ongoing moves towards harmonization are expected to take time, creating a state of flux, which challenges and confuses both domestic and international marketers. They must therefore work hard to keep up with these changes in the regulations and [heir interpretations. In many developed economies, legislation affecting business has increased steadily over the years. This legislation has been enacted for a number of reasons.
political environment Lewes, government agencies and pressure groups that influence and limit various organizations and individuals in a given society.
168 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment The first is to protect companies from each other. Although business executives may praise competition, they sometimes try to neutralize it when it threatens them. So laws are passed to define and prevent unfair competition. Anti-trust agencies and monopolies and mergers commissions exist to enforce these laws. The second purpose of government regulation is to protect consumers from unfair business practices. Some firms, if left alone, would make shoddy products, tell lies in their advertising and deceive consumers through their packaging and pricing. Unfair business practices have been defined and are enforced by various agencies. The third purpose of government regulation is to protect the interests of society against unrestrained business behaviour. Profitable business activity does not always create a better quality of life. Regulation arises to ensure that firms take responsibility for the social costs of their production or products. New laws and their enforcement are likely to continue or increase. Business executives must watch these developments when planning their products and marketing programmes. Marketers need to know about the main laws protecting competition, consumers and society. International marketers should additionally be siware of regional, country and local laws that affect their international marketing activity.
• Growth of Public Interest Groups The number and power of public interest groups have increased during the past two decades. In Chapter 2 we discussed a broad range of societal marketing issues. The pioneering efforts of Ralph Nader's Public Citizen group in the United States raised the importance of the role of public interest groups as watchdogs on consumer interests and lifted consumerism into a powerful social force. Consumerism has spilled over to countries in western Etirope and other developed market economies such as Australia. Hundreds of other consumer interest groups, private and governmental, operate at all levels - regional, national, state/county and local levels. Other groups that marketers neect to consider are those seeking to protect the environment and to advance the rights of various groups such as women, children, ethnic minorities, senior citizens and the handicapped. As we saw in the case of Nutricia's failed biotechnology project (see Marketing Highlight 4.1), companies cannot afford to ignore the views of powerful public interest groups.
• Increased Emphasis on Ethics and Socially Responsible Actions Written regulations cannot possibly cover all potential marketing abuses, and existing laws are often difficult to enforce. However, beyond written laws and regulations, business is also governed by social codes and rules of professional ethics. Enlightened companies encourage their managers to look beyond what the regulatory system allows and simply to 'do the right thing'. These socially responsible firms actively seek out ways to protect the long-run interests of their consumers and the environment. Increased concerns about the environment have created fresh interest in the issues of ethics and social responsibility. Almost every aspect of marketing involves such issues. Unfortunately, because these issues usually involve conflicting interests, well-meaning people can disagree honestly about the right course of action in a particular situation. Thus many industrial and professional trade associations have suggested codes of ethics, and many companies are now developing policies and guidelines to deal with complex social responsibility issues.
The Company's Macroenvironment • 160 In Chapter 2, we discussed in greater depth public and social responsibility issues surrounding key marketing decisions, the legal issues that marketers should understand, and the common ethical and societal concerns that marketers face.
C ultura I Environment The cultural environment is made up of institutions and other forces that affect society's basic values, perceptions, preferences and behaviours. People grow up in a particular society that shapes their basic beliefs and values. They absorb a world-view that defines their relationships with others. The following cultural characteristics can affect marketing decision making. Marketers must be aware of these cultural influences and how they vary across societies within the markets served by the firm.
• Persistence of Cultural Values People in a given society hold many beliefs and values. Their core beliefs and values have a high degree of persistence. For example, most of us believe in working, getting married, giving to charity and being honest. These beliefs shape more specific attitudes and behaviours found in everyday life. Core beliefs and values are passed on from parents to children and are reinforced by schools, religious groups, business and government. Secondary beliefs and values are more open to change. Believing in marriage is a core belief; believing that people should get married early in life is a secondary belief. Marketers have some chance of changing secondary values, but little chance of changing core values. For example, family-planning marketers could argue more effectively that people should get married later than that they should not get married at all.
• Shifts in. Secondary Cultural Values Although core values are fairly persistent, cultural swings do take place. Consider the impact of popular music groups, movie personalities and other celebrities on young people's hair styling, clothing and sexual norms. Marketers want to predict cultural shifts in order to spot new opportunities or threats. Such information helps marketers cater to trends with appropriate products and communication appeals. The principal cultural values of a society are expressed in people's views of themselves and others, as well as in their views of organizations, society, nature and the universe. PEOPLE'S VIEWS OF THEMSELVES. People vary in their emphasis on serving themselves versus serving others. Some people seek personal pleasure, wanting fun, change and escape. Others seek self-realination through religion, recreation or the avid pursuit of careers or other life goals. People use products, brands and services as a means of self-expression and buy products and services that match their views of themselves. In the last dfccade or so, personal ambition and materialism increased dramatically, with significant marketing implications. In a 'me-society', people buy their 'dream cars' and take their 'dream vacations'. They spend more time in outdoor health activities G°ggin& tennis, etc.), in thought, and on arts and crafts. The leisure industry (camping, skiing, boating, arts and crafts, and sports) faces good growth prospects in a society where people seek self-fulfilment.
cultural environment institutions and other forces that affect society's basic values, perceptions, preferences and behaviours.
170 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment
Ronald McDonald Children's Charities: Playing a Role in Local Communities Ronald McDonald Children's Charities (RMCC) was founded in 1984 in the United States. It was established in memory of Ray Kroc, founder of McDonald's Corporation, lie believed that 'It is important to have an involvement in the life and spirit of a community and the people around you.' This belief lives on in the McDonald's system and is evident in a variety of community programmes practised by McDonald's Che world over. In 1989, for example, RMCC was set up in the United Kingdom, and through the efforts of McDonald's Restaurants Limited, its staff, customers and suppliers, over S3 million h;is since been raised for a wide variety of
charitable causes that help children. RMCC grants have been awarded to programmes which help young people reach their full potential and make a real difference for children and their wellbeing. The 'Ronald McDonald House' is a cornerstone of RMCC. The first was built at Philadelphia in the United States in 1974, close to the Philadelphia Children's Hospital. When 2 child is taken seriously ill and has to spend some time in hospital, families are usually faced with the problem of where to stay to be close at hand. The Ronald McDonald House has a set number of beds for parents to stay overnight and a family accommodation block. This means that the family can be together again as a unit, while also providing a brief respite in a family environment. There are now over 160 Ronald McDonald Houses in the United States, Canada, Australia,
McDonald's plays its role in die life and spirit of the surrounding local communities
The Company's Macraenvironment • 171
Japan and Europe. Each House is a 'home away from home' with the feel, aesthetics and comfort of family living. Families are able to prepare their own meals, relax and rest in privacy or enjoy the company of others living in when they so desire. The House is the result of a team effort between the hospital doctors and staff, the parents of the children and McDonald's. Each House is run by a separate charitable trust set up to oversee fund raising and to manage the house. The boards of these trusts are made up of parents, hospital representatives and senior management of McDonald's. The trusts initiate their own fundraising events. Throughout the year, McDonald's own restaurant staff are involved in local events to raise money for RMCC, and collecting boxes for donations from customers are placed in every restaurant. McDonald's Restaurants Limited, its franchisees and also its suppliers all donate to RMCC. Other recipients of money raised by
RMCC include children's charities - such as hospitals, youth organizations, schools and many more worthy causes. • McDonald's restaurants not only display posters and collecting boxes for the RMCC programme, but also provide customers with information leaflets to disseminate information about their community involvement. These leaflets also sometimes contain requests for funds and/or volunteers who may be interested in helping in specific campaigns. This type of e omnium cation effort is also designed to raise customers' as well as other local and general publics' awareness of Ray Kroc's philosophy of 'giving something back to the communities that give so much to us [McDonald's Corporation]'. SOURCES: Tour questions answered', Ronald McDonald Children's Charities, London; The Public Relations Department, McDonald's Restaurants Limited, London.
PEOPLE'S VIEWS OF OTHERS. More recently, observers have noted a shift from a 'me-society' to a 'we-society', in which more people want to be with and serve others. Flashy spending and self-indulgence appear to be on the way out, whereas saving, family concerns and helping others are on the rise. A recent survey showed that more people arc becoming involved in charity, volunteer work and social service activities.16 This suggests a bright future for 'social support' products and services that improve direct communication between people, such as health clubs, family vacations and games. It also suggests a growing market for 'social substitutes' - things like VGRs and computers that allow people who are alone to feel that they are not. PEOPLE'S VIEWS OV ORGANIZATIONS. People van' in their attitudes towards corporations, government agencies, trade unions, universities and other organizations. By and large, people are willing to work for big organizations and expect them, in turn, to carry out society's work. There has been a decline in organizational loyalty, however. People are giving a little less to their organizations and are trusting them less. This trend suggests that organizations need to find new ways to win consumer confidence. They need to review their advertising communications to make sure their messages are honest. Also, they need to review their various activities to make sure that they are coming across as 'good corporate citizens'. More companies are linking themselves to worthwhile causes, measuring their images with important publics and using public relations to build more positive images (see Marketing Highlight 4.4). PEOPLE'S VIEWS OK SOCIETY. People vary in their attitudes toward their society - from patriots who defend it, to reformers who want to change it, and
172 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment Knvirunmental marketing: here Hewlett Packard attempts to market its high quality technology •while promoting a good cause - the protection of endangered wildlife
The versatile HP LaserJet 4 Plus. Saves money. Saves paper. Saves wildlife.
malcontents who want to leave it. People's orientation to their society influences their consumption patterns, levels of savings and attitudes toward the marketplace. In the affluent and industrializing Asian nations, consumers aspire to achieve the high living standards and lifestyles of people in the more advanced western countries. The display of conspicuous consumption and fondness for expensive western brands - the common label for achievement and westernization - are highly acceptable behaviour. Consumer patriotism, for example, is not an issue, since locally made goods are often viewed as inferior or less desirable than foreign imported brands. By contrast, in the western developed countries, the late 1980s and early 1990s saw an increase in consumer patriotism. European consumers reckoned that sticking to locally produced goods would save and protect jobs. Many US companies also responded to American patriotism with 'made in America' themes and flag-waving promotions, such as Chevrolet is 'the heartbeat of America', Black & Decker's flag-like symbol on its tools, and the textile industry's 'Grafted with Pride in the USA' advertising campaign, which insisted that 'made in the USA matters.' PEOPLE'S VIEWS OF NATURE. People vary in their attitudes towards the natural world. Some feel ruled by it, others feel in harmony with it and still others seek to master it. A long-term trend has been people's growing mastery over nature through technology and the belief that nature is bountiful. More recently, however, people have recognized that nature is finite and fragile - that it can be destroyed or spoiled by human activities. Love of nature is leading to more camping, hiking, boating, fishing and other outdoor activities. Business has responded by offering more hiking gear, camping equipment, better insect repellents and other products for nature enthusiasts. Tour operators are offering more tours to wilderness areas. Food producers have
Summary • 173 found growing markets for 'natural' products like natural cereal, natural ice cream, organically farmed produce and a variety of health foods. Marketing communicators are using appealing natural backgrounds in advertising their products. PEOPLF/S VIEWS OF THE UNIVERSE. Finally, people vary in their beliefs about the origin of the universe and their place in it. While the practice of religion remains strong in many parts of the world, religious conviction and practice have been dropping oif through the years in certain countries, notably in the United States and Europe where, for example, church attendance has fallen gradually. As people lose their religious orientation, they seek goods and experiences with more immediate satisfactions. During the 1980s, people increasingly measured success in terms of career achievement, wealth and worldly possessions. Some futurists, however, have noted an emerging renewal of interest in religion, perhaps as part of a broader search for a new inner purpose. Starting in the 1990s, they believe, people are moving away from materialism and dog-eat-dog ambition to seek more permanent values and a more certain grasp of right and wrong. The 'new realists', found mainly in the developed western markets, reflect a move away from overt consumerism. However, in many markets such as India, China and south-east Asia, society's value systems place great importance on economic achievement and material possession. The values of these 'enthusiastic materialists' are also shared by the developing markets of Europe, such as Turkey, and some Latin American countries.18
Responding to the Marketing Environment Many companies view the marketing environment as an 'uncontrollable' element to which they must adapt. They passively accept the marketing environment and do not try to change it. They analyze the environmental forces and design strategies that will help the company avoid the threats and take advantage of the opportunities the environment provides. Other companies take an environmental management perspective.19 Rather than simply watching and reacting, these firms take aggressive actions to affect the publies and forces in their marketing environment. Such companies hire lobbyists to influence legislation affecting their industries and stage media events to gain favourable press coverage. They run 'advertorials' (ads expressing editorial points of view) to shape public opinion. They take legal action ami file complaints with regulators to keep competitors in line. They also form contractual agreements to control their distribution channels better. Marketing management cannot always affect environmental forces. In many cases, it must settle for simply watching and reacting to the environment. For example, a company would have little success trying to influence geographic population shifts, the economic environment or important cultural values. But whenever possible, clever marketing managers will take a proactive rather than reactive approach to the marketing environment.
Summary All companies operate within a marketing environment. This environment consists of all the actors and forces that affect the company's ability to transact effectively
environmental
management perspective A management perspective in which the firm takes aggressive actions to affect the publics and forces in its marketing environment rather than simply •watching it and reacting to it.
174 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment with its target market. The company's marketing environment can be divided into the microem'ironmeiit ;md the macroenvironment. The rnicmenvironment consists of five components. The first is the company's internal environment - its departmental and managerial structure, which affects marketing management's decision making. The second component is the marketing channel firms that co-operate to create value. These include the firm's suppliers and marketing intermediaries (middlemen, physical distribution firms, financial intermediaries, marketing services .'agencies). The third component refers to the five types of market in which the company ean sell; the consumer, producer, reseller, government and international markets. The competitors facing the company make up the fourth component. The final component is the gnnip of publics that have an actual or potential interest in or impact on the organization's ability to achieve its objectives. These constituencies include financial, media, government, citizen action, local, general and internal publics. The company's macroenvironment consists of primary forces that shape opportunities and pose threats to the company. These forces Include demographic, economic, natural, technological, political and cultural forces. In many developed western and Asian countries, the demographic environment presents problems with the challenges of changing age and family structures, a population that is becoming better educated and increasing diversity. The economic environment shows changing patterns of real income and shifts in consumer spending patterns. The natural environment has pending shortages of certain raw materials, growing energy costs, higher pollution levels, more government intervention in natural resource management and higher levels of citizen concern and activism about these issues. The technological environment reveals rapid technological change, unlimited innovation opportunities, a need for high R & 0 budgets, concentration on minor improvements rather than big discoveries, and growing regulation of technological change. The political environment shows increasing business regulation, the rising importance of public interest groups and increased emphasis on ethics and socially responsible actions. The cultural environment suggests long-term trends towards a 'we-soeiety', less organizational loyalty, increasing patriotism find conservatism, greater appreciation for nature and a search for more meaningful and enduring values.
Key Terms Cultural environment 169 Demography 151 Economic environment 158 Engel's laws 162 Environmental management perspective 173 Financial imevmediaries 148
Macroenvironment 146 Marketing environment 146 Marketing intermediaries 147 Marketing services agencies 148 Micro environ mem 146 Natural environment 162 Physical distribution firms 14fi
Political environment 167 Public 149 Resellers 147 Suppliers 147 Technological environment 165
Discussing the Issues I.
Select a sports anil leisure footwear company. What micro environmental trends will affect the success of
the company in the decade ahead? What marketing plans would you make to respond to these trends?
References
Marketing Highlight 4.2 noted the growing importance of two demographic groups, the 'Third Agers' and 'Generation Xers'. If you were in charge of marketing in a consumer healthcare company, how would you deal with the potential opportunities presented hy these two consumer groups? Pressure groups, lobbyists and public interest groups play an important role in defending society's interests. Select one such group you arc familiar with and describe its cause. Suggest ways in which goods Or services providers targeted by the group might satisfactorily address die demands or pressures imposed by the group. Younger customers are becoming more concerned about the natural environment. How would this trend afteot a
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company that markets plastic sandwich bags? Discuss some effective responses to tliis trend. 5.
A large alcoholic beverage marketer is planning to introduce an 'adult soft drink' - a socially acceptable substitute for stronger drinks that would be cheaper and lower in alcohol than wine. What cultural and other factors might affect the success of this product?
6.
Some marketing goals, such as improved quality, require strong support from an internal public - a company's own employees. But surveys show that employees increasingly distrust management and that company loyalty is eroding. How can a company market internally to help meet its goals?
Applying llie Concepts Changes in the marketing environment mean that marketers must meet new consumer needs that may be quite different - even directly opposite - from those in the past. You can track changes in the marketing environment by looking at how companies modify their products. • Make a list of the products you encounter in one day that claim to be 'low' or 'high' in some ingredient, such as low-tar cigarettes or high-fibre cereal. • Write down similar products that seem to offer the opposite characteristics. • In each case, which product do you think came first? Do you think that this is an effective response to a changing marketing environment? Why? Why not?
The political environment can have a direct impact on marketers and their plans. Thinking about a recent major political environmental change in a country of your choice, consider the following: • Name three industries that will probably have their marketing plans and strategies affected by the political changes. • For each of the industries that you named, list three potential strategies to help adapt to the coming changes in the political environment. •
Although environmental changes appear likely, arc they certain? How should companies plan for unsettled conditions?
References George Pitcher. 'Sham 'soap wars' signal fierce battle to capture market share'. Marketing Week (3 May 1996), p. 29; 'Soap and chips', Financial Times (27 December 1994), p. 15; Roderick Oram. 'Washing whiter proves a murky business', Financial Times (21 December 1994), p. ft; Diane Summers. 'Pi-outer set for rap on soap advert', Financial Times (1 December 1994), p. 9; Roderick Oram, T&G, Unilever snap wars leave market spinning*, Financial Times (1 November 1994), p. 29; 'Persil Power 'no better than others', Financial Times (6 October 1994). p. 11; Barbara Smit, 'Unilever comes clean (iver detergent', The European (20 Scptember-6 October 1994), p. 18; Diane Summers, 'Unilever detergent comes under renewed criticism', Financial Times (24-5 September 1994), p. 26, Roderick
Oram. 'Unilever concedes detergent damaged clothing', Financial limes (23 September 1994), p. 1; 'Tale from the washroom', The Economist (11 June 1994), p. 89; David Short, 'Dirty fighting in soap wars'. The European (5-11 August 1994), p. 17; Diane Summers, 'Procter steps tip attack on Unilever's Persil Power', Financial Times (30-1 July 1994), p. 24; Barbara Smit, 'Unilevur sticks by Omo', The European (10-16 June 1994); Tony Jackson, 'Dirty tricks alleged in aoap war', Financial Times (3 May 1994), p. 9; 'Unilever takes Procter ro court in row over 'super' detergent', Financial Times (30 April-1 May 1994), p. 1. The Ui' World Pupularitm Prospects gives population details for individual countries. 'Fings ain't wot they used to be', The Economist (28 May
176 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment
4.
5.
6. 7.
8.
9.
10. 11. 12.
1994), pp. 77-8; see also Joe Schwartz, 'Is the baby boomlet 'Marketing strategies and market prospects for environmentally-friendly consumer products', British ending?',AmericanDem0gfaphiiV& (May 1992), p. 9; European Commission, Demographic Statistics, and OKCD Journal of Management (1996). pp. 263-81; Sabine are further sources of population statistics and projections. i Dembkowsfci and Stuart Hanmer-Lloyd, 'The environmental David Short, 'A different taste of things to come'. The value-attitiide-system model: a framework to guide the European (14-20 October 1994), p. 21; for an outstanding understanding of environ men tally-conscious consumer discussion of the changing nature of American households, see behaviour', .Imirnal of Marketing Management (October American Households, American Demographies Desk 1994), pp. 593-603; W. Adlwarth and F. Wimrner, Reference Series, no. 3 (July 1992). 'UmwcItbewussEseiu und Kaufverhalten - Ergebnisse einer See Fabian Linden, 'In the rearview niin-or'.Aiienowi Verbmucher pan el studio' (Environmental consciousness and Demographies (April 1984), pp. 4-5. For more reading, see Bryant '• purchase behaviour: results of a consumer panel study), Robey and Cheryl Russell, 'A portrait of die American worker1, .lahrbuch derAbsars- und Verbraueherjorschtcttg, no. 2, Airuniean DeiimgraphicH (March 1984), pp. 17-21. Nuremberg, Qesellschaft fur Konsumforschung (1986), Alan Mitchell, 'Brands play for global domination' Marketing pp. 166-92; see also Carl Ftankel, 'Blueprint for green Week (2 February 1996), pp. 26-7; 'The myth of the Euromarketing', American Demographies (April 1992), pp. 34-8, consumer', The Economist (4 November 1989), pp. 107-8. 13. 'Going Dutch', The Economist (20 November 1993), p. 110. See 'Can Europe compete? Balance of economic power 14. See 'R & D Scoreboard', Financial Ynnes (17 June 1994), begins to shift', Financial Times (9 March 1994), p. 14; 'Can pp. 14-15; The UK R&I) Scoreboard 1994, Company Europe compete?', Financial Times (7 March 1994), p. 14; Reporting Limited, Edinburgh, UK; Robert ISudcri, 'R & 1) 'Can Europe compete5 An elusive corporate consensus'; 'Can Scoreboard: on a clear day you can see progress', Business Europe compete? A relapse into Eurosclerosis', Financial Week (29 June 1992), pp. 104-6. Times (24 February 1994), pp. 20,21. 15. Guy de Jonquiercs, 'Shortcomings of joint research', 'Living under an Asian cloud', Fintincial Times (27-S Financial Timcx (16Oetober 1990), p. 18. December 1997), p. 7; 'The day the miracle came to an end', • 16. Adriemie Ward Fawcett, 'Lifestyle stud)', Adfoertising Age (18 Financial Times (12 January 1998), p. 8; John Ridding and April 1994), pp. 12-13. James Kynge, 'Complacency gives way to contagion', 17. See Pat Sloan, 'Ads go all-American', Adverriauig Age (28 July Financial Times (13 January 1998), p. 8. 1986), pp. 3, 52;'Retailers rally ing round the flag', .Advertising .lameh W. Hughes, 'Understanding the squeezed consumer1, Age (11 February 1991). p. 4; Gary Levin, 'BASH, HASH, BASH: American Demographics (July 1991), pp. 44-5(1; see also US marketers turn red, white, and blue against Japan', Patricia Sellers, 'Winning over the new consumer'. Famine (29 Advertising Age (3 February 1992), pp. 1,44. July 1991), pp. 113-25; Brian O'Reilly, 'Preparing for leaner 18. Joseph M. Winski, 'Who we are, how we live, what we think', times', Fortune (27 January 1992), pp. 40-7. Advertising Age (20 January 1992), pp. 16-18; John lluey, for more on value marketing, see Christopher Power, 'Value 'Finding new heroes for a new era'. Fortune (25 January marketing', Business Week (11 November 1991), pp. 132-40. 1993), pp. 62-9; Dyan Maehan, 'A more tolerant generation', Tony l.cwin, 'Car makers line up for next baby boom', The Forbes (8 September 1997), pp. 46-7; William Davis, European (30 May 1996), p. 30. 'Opinion', Marketing Business (March 1996), p. 6. For more discussion about consumers' environmental 19. See Carl P. Zeitham! and Valerie A. Zeithaml, 'Environmental consciousness and consumers' environmental decisions, sec : management: revising tlie marketing perspective', Journal of Veronica Wong, William Turner and Paul Stoncmaii, Marketing (Spring 1984), pp. 46-53.
Case 4: Shiseido
Case 4 Shiseido: Rethinking the Future 'WE NEED TO RETHINK WHAT a human is,' observes Seigo Matsouka, a consultant and conference leader, as he begins a four-day conference for 30 Shiseido division managers. Shiseido is Japan's largest cosmetics company. Yet its managers and the managers at many other Japanese companies worry that Japan's hierarchical business structure and its emphasis on consensus-based decision making will not serve their companies well in the future. Although Japanese companies have done well at improving existing products, they have not done as well at developing new products and markets. Thus, they need to stimulate their managers to think creatively, something they have not previously expected from their managers. Why are successful Japanese companies suddenly so concerned? Consider Korika Shida, n 21-year-old student who is shopping at an upmarket retail store in a chic Tokyo shopping district. As Norika examines a tube of Shiseido's expensive lipstick, she turns up her nose at the price. 'I find good colours at places like this,' she sniffs. 'Then I go and buy the same product at a discount store.' Welcome to the new Japan, Even in a country known for its loyal, demanding customers, Japanese managers are learning that consumers have minds of their own. Changing consumer behaviour will require new marketing approaches. Shiseido was the first firm to introduce western-style toothpaste to Japan - in 1888! It also opened Japan's first soda fountain in 1902. However, Shiseido developed its competitive advantage in the 1920s. During this period of high inflation, Shiseido worked out a unique arrangement with retailers. The retailers agreed to sell only Shiseido's cosmetics in exchange for a commitment that Shiseido would buy back any unsold cosmetics. With this understanding, Shiseido became both manufacturer and wholesaler, and developed a network of 25,000 Japanese retailers that sold its products exclusively. These shops represent about 50 per cent of all cosmetics and pharmaceutical outlets in Japan. The system allowed Shiseido to control distribution and develop a pricey image. Shiseido took this distribution channel and its high prices to annual sales of over 500 billion yen by 1990. In April in 1991, partly in response to international trade pressure, Japan lifted its retail price controls on cosmetics, drugs and other small products priced under about £7. In other product markets, such deregulation had increased distribution costs and allowed foreign companies to challenge Japanese firms in their home market. However, Shiseido had already learned to contend with foreign competition. Western cosmetics companies, such as Clinique Laboratories, had earlier gained a 7 per cent share of the Japanese market by selling through leading department stores that traditional Japanese cosmetics firms avoided. Shiseido countered this threat by developing 'CL Shops' - cosmetic counselling centres, where
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178 • Chapter 4 The Marketing Environment employees provided more detailed advice to customers in fashionably redesigned retail settings. Deregulation had also caused dramatic price cuts and fostered the rise of discount stores in other product markets. In cosmetics, entrepreneurs like Yukio Iliguchi responded by founding discount stores like Kawachiya Shuhaii (jompany. Before Shiseido cut off his supply, Higuohl drew crowds of shoppers by selling Shiseido products at a 30 per cent discount. Higuchi persisted by arguing that the belief 'that quality only comes at a high price is weakening'. Further, he noted, 'cosmetics will have to become cheaper as consumers become wiser'. Most Japanese observers agree. They note that consumers want competition and they want discount stores. Even supermarkets are increasingly introducing cheap, private-label cosmetics. Although new to Japan, these consumer buying and retailing trends are already well established in the USA and many western European markets. Such changes represent a major shift that has left the previously wellcosseted Japanese consumer-product companies and retailers badly shaken. Shiseido has been responding to these changes in the environment on two fronts. First, it is cutting costs and refocusing on lower-priced cosmetics. Recently, it opened a highly automated factory that uses robots to carry out almost all the steps in making cosmetics. The plant produces as many cosmetics as one of Shiseido's factories, but with a third of the staff. Second, Shiseido is looking for more growth overseas as its domestic market saturates and there are limited opportunities to expand home sales. It already has 21 subsidiaries and six factories in 30 countries. The company's goal is to increase international sales by 50 per cent to 100 billion yen by 1997. In early 1994, the company shifted its marketing strategy in key overseas markets, particularly the USA, focusing more on skin care products and on splashy new print advertising. It renegotiated new locations in many urban centre shopping locations and refurbished its sales counters to project a 'new image', with more eye-catching displays that explained Shiseido's advanced skin-care programme. Shiseido also began to launch new brands for men and more new fragrances for women. Shiseido's managers in the USA noted that their refocusing efforts were on target with changes in that market. Industry observers point out that more and more executives from packaged-goods companies have taken over cosmetic company marketing programmes. They are discarding the sexy models in glamorous locales in favour of scientific-sounding claims. Ads like this one are becoming increasingly common: 'In just 21 days, fine dry lines and wrinkles are reduced by over 38 per cent'. Competitors are also stepping up the use of promotions (e.g. coupons, money-back guarantees) in order to gain new trials and sales. A US executive suggests that these marketing changes reflect increasing consumer savvy. 'A consumer in the nineties is as smart as you can get,' one notes. 'She reads the labels, she understands how ingredients work, she wants products that truly perform.' Another executive adds that some of the industry's changes are in response to consumers who are more valueconscious. 'Even people with high incomes are very price-conscious.' These observations are echoed by one of Shiseido's European managers attending the conference. 'You can't sell something that they don't believe in. But it's not just about scientific claims, coupons or fancy sales counters either. We have to be chic and high-tech and not charge the earth at the same time; consumers want to feel good about themselves, but they don't want to be told they will wake up with bunches of wrinkles if they don't use these products!'
Case 4- Shineido • 179
It appears that Norika Shida may not be much different from consumers in Los Angeles or London. But can Japanese cosmetic companies like Shiseido repeat Japanese successes in the global car and consumer electronics markets? Some analysts argue that western consumers see Japanese products as technically advanced and reliable, but short on 'soul'. That image is good for stereos, but not for body products. Besides, Shiseido has a tough tight ahead in markets abroad, where global brands, such as Revlon, L'Orcal, Estee Lauder, Christian Dior, Chanel, Clinique and Clarins and many others, including private labels, are already well entrenched. Can cosmetic companies like Shiseido turn whimsical beauty products into natural, high-tech, essential products? The ageing structure of the population in many of its markets is already thrusting traditional cosmetic companies into turmoil. Do older consumers still want the same cosmetics that 20-year-old models promote? Can it succeed by stressing skin care? Will consumers continue to buy their cosmetics in department and speciality stores, or will they join the trend towards buying cosmetics in mass-me re hand is ing stores? How are channels changing in the company's target markets and how should it respond to these changes? Shiseido is spending almost 4 per cent of its sales on R & D, about double the amount that many of its western rivals spend. Is this the right strategy? As Shiseido's executives struggle with these questions and try to understand their customers and markets, and how these are evolving, Seigo Matsouka repeats, 'So, what does it mean to be human?'
QUESTIONS 1. What are the key environmental forces that have impacted on Shiseido's cosmetic business in the last decade? 2. Why should Shiseido's executives gain a deeper understanding of consumers' characteristics and how these are changing? 3. Evaluate the company's response to these changes. 4. What marketing recommendations would you make to Shiseido as it seeks to increase sales in overseas markets? 5. What are the emerging market trends? 6. How might these impact on Shiseido's business in the future? SOURCES: 'The softer samurai', The Economist (12 May 1990], p. 73; 'Pacing up', The Economist (13 July 1991), pp. 71-2; Louise de Rosaria, 'Make up and mend', Far Eastern Economic Jteciero (19 December 1991), pp. 70-1, 'Fragrance helps you live longer'. The Ktxmomist (23 October 1993), p. 86; Paillette Thomas, 'Peddling youth ^ets some wrinkles', VdtlStnsetJoiinud (24 October 1994), p. Bl; Saeliiko Sakamaki, 'The mailing of Japan', far Eastern Ketmomiu Review (8 August 1996), p. SO.
The Global Marketplace CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Discuss how the economic, political-legal and cultural environments affect a company's international marketing decisions. Describe three key approaches to entering international markets. Explain the primary issue of deciding on the global marketing programmes and whether to standardize or adapt their marketing mixes for international markets. Distinguish among the three main ways companies manage their global marketing organizations.
Preview Case McDonald's; Breaking into the South African Market MCDONALD'S OPERATES OVER 21,000 FAST-FOOD restaurants in 104 countries. Its golden arches overlook piazzas and shopping malls from Moscow to Manila. And it's also the world's most famous trademark - in 1996, it was rated the world's top brand by Intcrbrand, a consultancy, beating Coca-Cola into second place. In recent years, faced with greater competition in the United States, the company has increasingly relied on overseas markets as a source of profits. Its forays into international markets had generally been successful. In 1995, as part of its overseas empire building, McDonald's nuide its first venture into sub-8aharan Africa, the last frontier of emerging markets. Like many 181
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Chapter S The American multinationals, McDonald's had long had its eye on the South African market, but waited until the end of apartheid before it felt ready to enter. It had, however, registered its world famous trademark in South Africa as early as 1968. In 1993, a year before South Africa's first non-racial general election, McDonald's finally decided to press ahead with an investment in the country. However, by the time the first McDonald's restaurant opened in 1995, it was clear to the American giant that it was entering a rather unusual market. For years, behind the shelter of sanctions and its own protective tariffs, South Africa had spawned a first-world consumer industry. Its fastfood companies had built up strong local brands specifically catering to South African tastes. The major foreign-owned operators included KFC (with 320 outlets) and Wimpy (220 outlets), but the remaining operators were primarily home grown. The established ones included Nando (a Portuguesestyle spicy chicken burger chain with 105 restaurants in South Africa), Qiicken Lickeri. with 275 outlets, and Steers, which runs 215 burger restaurants. The company also discovered that a local trader had applied both to register the 'McDonalds' trademark for his own use, and to have the American company's rights to the trademark withdrawn (its trademark registration had technically expired). McDonald's instantly filed a case against the trader, and applied to re-register the trademark for itself. As one of the world's leading brands, McDonald's was plainly associated with the trademark around the globe and the company could reasonably expect the South African courts to protect it from lookalikes. Although its trademark registration had expired in the country, McDonald's argued, under a clause in South African law, that 'special circumstances' had prevented it entering the market: namely, trade sanctions against South Africa and pressure from the anti-apartheid lobby in America, When the case came to the Supreme Court, in October 1995, things did not turn out quite the way McDonald's had expected. Three eases, in fact, were heard at the same time. Two were brought by South African traders, Jo burgers Drive-inn Restaurant and Dax Prop, each of which already ran a fast-food restaurant under the name 'McDonalds' and each of which wanted to deprive McDonald's of the right to trade under that name. The third case was brought by McDonald's, which was suing the other companies for using and imitating its brand. The cases rested on two questions. One was whether McDonald's was a 'well-known murk'. If it was, then the company would be instantly entitled to protection from imitation by local traders, and die impostors would have to pack up shop. The second was whether McDonald's claim of 'special circumstances' could be justified. For McDonald's managers, the answer to the first question was selfevident. Though they recognized that South Africa had a relatively sophisticated fast-food industry of its own, the idea diat such a famous global brand might not be well known on the southern tip of Africa seemed preposterous. Two market-re search surveys conducted in South Africa confirmed that the brand was indeed well known. The judge presiding in the Supreme Court case, however, argued that the surveys were conducted among whites living in posh suburbs and could 'by no stretch of the imagination be regarded as representative of the entire South African population', 76 per cent of which is black. The judge threw McDonald's case out. What of the second question, concerning the firm's claim that 'special circumstances' had kept it out of South Africa's market? McDonald's had first registered its trademark in South Africa in 1968, and then renewed it at
Preview Cuxei McDonald's
regular intervals until 1985. Under South African law as it stood at the time, a company lost its right to the trademark it it' languished unused on the books for five years, unless there was a good reason. Again, the judge did not believe that 'special circumstances' - pressure from anti-apartheid groups and sanctions - were the real reasons that McDonald's had left its trademark unused for so long: 'there is no explanation for the failure to commence business in South Africa,' he declared, 'other than the fact that South Africa simply did not rank on McDonald's list of priorities'. These legal setbacks were temporary. McDonald's was allowed to press ahead with opening restaurants while it prepared its case for the Appeal Court. In 1996 the American burger chain won this second battle: the Appeal Court. In essence, applied a less strict test of what it meant to be well known in South Africa, and accepted the evidence in the two surveys because it thought that whites represented McDonald's target markets. The case was a harbinger of the sort of trouble that McDonald's was to experience throughout South Africa. But, McDonald's had not given up so easily. The firm continued to invest in opening new outlets after that. At the end of 1997, it operated 35 restaurants in the country - a small-fry, though, compared to the 337 it runs in Brazil. It has scored well against local rivals in slick service and a studied appeal to children. However, there are still worries that McDonald's is treating its South African market as if it were uniform. It offers its standard worldwide menu — hamburgers of even' imaginable size, with a few chicken products as alternatives. Some of its loeal managers have expressed how odd the choice is given that the majority of local black consumers tend to favour chicken, which is cheaper than red meat. White consumers, by contrast, tend to be beef-obsessed. They argue that 'politically correct' McDonald's seems unwilling to acknowledge, in the overt way that its local rivals do, the point that the split between beef hamburgers and chicken has as much to do with race as with products, McDonald's judged that the South African market was not different enough to merit product adaptation from the start. It would wait instead to see how well the standard McDonald's menu went down. McDonald's experience in the market is a stark reminder of the challenges facing companies seeking to penetrate new country markets. Even the most powerful, established, global brands from developed countries can hit a number of unexpected barriers to entry into a foreign market. Importantly, the company cannot expect to trample all before it in developing or emerging country markets — particularly when local consumers can choose established local alternatives. If the owner of the world's leading brand encounters such troubles, companies with a less well-known trademark must think twice before venturing into foreign markets.1 When deciding to take advantage of an international marketing opportunity, firms should consider a number of questions.
QUESTIONS You should attempt these questions only after completing your reading of this chapter. International marketing is more than simply taking what products or services are successful at home and exporting to a foreign market. It requires huge investment and long-term commitment to the target market, cultural sensitivity, and a willingness to adapt one's product and marketing strategies. Tailoring the firm's offering to suit target customer needs cannot be over-emphasized. Once the firm learns to do this, overseas markets can be lucrative and a recipe for success.
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1. What are the attractions of international market expansion? 2. What might be the risks attached to expanding into a foreign or emerging market? 3. How can these risks be minimized? 4. Outline the key lessons we can draw from McDonald's experience in die South African market. 5. What criteria must the firm consider when deciding on which countrymarket to enter? 6. What constitutes an effective marketing programme for the target country market?
Introduction This chapter discusses the importance of global marketing and explains the key elements of the planning process: analyzing international market opportunities; deciding whether or not to go abroad; establishing market entry mode; allocating resources; developing the marketing plan; organizing for international marketing; implementing the marketing strategy; and evaluation and control. Companies pay little attention to international trade when the home market is big and teeming with opportunities. The home market is also much safer. Managers do not need to learn other languages, deal with strange and changing currencies, face political and legal uncertainties or adapt their products to different customer needs and expectations. This has been the attitude of many western companies, which saw little need to sell in overseas markets because their domestic market alone seemed to offer attractive opportunities for growth. Today, however, die business environment is changing and firms cannot afford to ignore international markets. The increasing dependency of nations around die world on each other's goods and services has raised awareness among companies of die need for a more international outlook in their approach to business. International markets are important because most firms are geared towards growth and so must seek new opportunities in foreign countries as their domestic markets mature. As international trade becomes more liberalized, firms are facing tougher foreign competition in the domestic market. They must develop the ability to fight off competitors on tlieir own home ground, or to exploit business opportunities in foreign markets. Furthermore, time and distance are shrinking rapidly with the advent of faster communication, transportation and financial flows. Products developed in one country are finding enthusiastic acceptance in other countries. Across western Europe and North America, names such as Toyota, Sony and Toshiba have become household words in the same way McDonald's, Toys 'fl' Us, Philips and IKEA are familiar names to most young consumers in Asian countries like Japan, Singapore find Hong Kong. Thus, as global competition intensifies, local companies that never thought about foreign competitors suddenly find these competitors in their own backyards. The firm that stays at home to play it safe not only misses the opportunity to enter other markets, but also risks losing its home market. Consider, for example, Japanese victories over western producers in ninny sectors - motorcycles, cars, cameras, consumer electronics, machine tools,
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Introduction
photocopiers. These markets used to be the stronghold of US, German and British companies in the 1970s, but are now dominated by .lapanese manufacturers. The latter are not insulated from foreign competitors either. Increasing competition from lower-cost newly industrializing countries (NIGs) in the Far East, notably South Korea and Taiwan, are posing a big threat to established Japanese firms in traditional industries like steel, chemicals and heavy machinery. In the United States, American firms are fighting off aggressive assaults by international European companies: Die's successful attacks on Gillette and Nestle's gains in the coffee and confectionery markets are a reflection of the growing level of international competition in 'safe' home markets. In the European Union (Ell), foreign firms' direct investment is on the increase and ititra-Union flows of investment in all kinds of business sectors - cars, clothing, retailing, financial services - are particularly active. Many sophisticated and aggressive foreign companies also see the emerging eastern European economies as longer-term opportunities. So, more than ever, firms must learn how to enter foreign markets and increase their global competitiveness. Although some companies would like to stem the tide of foreign imports through protectionism, this response would be only a temporary solution. Suppressing a free flow of foreign imports would lead to fewer choices for the consumer and higher prices for indigenously produced goods. In the long run, it would raise the cost of living and protect inefficient domestic firms. It also means that consumers' needs and wants would not be met effectively and efficiently. A better solution is to encourage more firms to learn to make the world their market. The importance of internationalization is also reflected by the fact that most governments run an export promotion programme, which tries to persuade local companies to export. Denmark pays more than half the salary of marketing consultants who help small and medium-size Danish companies get into exports. Many countries go even further and subsidize their companies by granting preferential land and energy costs - they even supply cash outright so that their companies can charge lower prices than do their foreign competitors. Today the pressure on firms operating in global industries is not just to export to other countries, but to strive to be a global firm. A global industry is one in which the strategic positions of competitors in given geographic or national markets are affected by their overall global positions, A global firm, therefore, is one that, by operating in more than one country, gains research and development, production, marketing and financial advantages in its costs and reputation that are not available to purely domestic competitors,2 The global company sees the world as one market. It minimizes the importance of national boundaries, and raises capital, sources materials and components, and manufactures and markets its goods wherever it can do the best job. For example, Ford's 'world truck' sports a cab made in Europe and a chassis built in North America. It is assembled in Brax.il and imported to the United States for sale. Thus global firms gain advantages by planning, operating and co-ordinating their activities on a worldwide basis. These gains are a key reason behind recent global restructuring programmes undertaken by leading German car producers, BMW and MercedesBenz. Global marketing is concerned with integrating or standardizing marketing actions across a number of geographic markets. This does not rule out forceful adaptation of the marketing mix to individual countries, but suggests that firms, where possible, ignore traditional market boundaries and capitalize on similarities between markets to build competitive advantage. Because firms around the world are globalizing at a rapid rate, domestic firms in global industries must act quickly before the window closes on them. This does not mean that small and medium-size firms must operate in a dozen countries to
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global industry An industry in which the strategic positions of competitors in given geographic or national markets are affected by their overall globed •positions, global firm A firm that, by operating in more than one country, gains R & D, production, marketing and financial advantages in its costs and reputation that are not available to purely domestic competitors. global marketing Marketing that is concerned toit/i integrating or standardizing marketing actions across different geographic markets.
186 • Chapter 5 The Global Marketplace succeed. These firms can practise global nichernanship. The world, however, is becoming smaller and every company operating in a global industry - whether large or small - must assess and establish its place in world markets. Firms that confront international competitors in their existing markets must ask some basic questions; What market position should we try to establish in our country, in the geographic region (e.g. Europe. North America, Asia, Australasia) and globally? Who will our global competitors he and what are their strategies and resources? Where should we produce or source our products? What strategic alliances should we form with other firms around the worldV This chapter surveys the global marketplace and addresses the important decisions that firms have to make in international marketing planning. Each decision will be discussed in detail. First, however, let us take a look at the risks in doing business abroad.
Risks in International Marketing Although the need for companies to go abroad is greater today than in the past, so are the risks. Managers muse anticipate the risks and obstacles in doing business in foreign markets. Several complex problems confront companies that 'go global'.
High Foreign Country Debt High debt, inflation and unemployment in several countries have resulted in highly unstable governments and currencies, which limit trade and expose firms to many risks. Debt-laden and/or currency-starved countries are often not able to pay despite their willingness to purchase. The inability of poorer countries, for example in eastern Europe, to pay by normal (cash) methods becomes a serious obstacle for supplying companies.
Exchange Rate Volatility The level of a country's exchange rate affects the company's competitiveness in the foreign market. A weak pound will favour exports of British goods. A strong exchange rate intensifies the level of competition the firm faces at home. For European companies whose countries are members of the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), much of Che uncertainty is removed from fluctuating exchange rates. On the one hand, this is favourable for companies doing a great portion of their international business in the EU. On the other, however, the ERM does impose constraints on company decisions, such as productivity levels and government policy (e.g. in its flexibility to reduce interest rates).
Foreign Government Entry Requirements Companies often face constraints imposed by the foreign or 'host' country government. Some of these market entry conditions relate to a variety of working practices including: degree of control (ownership) allowed; the hiring of local nationals; local content rules; the percentage of output exported; and the amount of profits that can be taken from the country. India, China, Mexico, Brazil and
Analysis of International Market Opportunity • 187 many African countries maintain formal, and often strict, entry conditions, while more advanced countries, such as Japan and the United States, impose strict 'quality' criteria.
Costs of Marketing Mix Adaptation Although the international firm gains from economies of scale in production, these must be weighed against the higher costs of product modification, distribution and communication expenditures in overseas markets. For example, the complex, multilayered distribution system traditionally used in Japan, together with high Japanese product quality expectations and expensive media costs, is a considerable barrier to market entry for many foreign firms.
Other Problems War, terrorism and corruption are other dangers that confront international businesses. The number of localized conflicts in eastern Europe is predicted to increase as a result of die resurgence in nationalism and ethnie rivalries in the post-cold war 'new world order1. Previous hostage-taking episodes in the Middle East and the widely publicized murders of western businessmen in Turkey, Shanghai (China) and Russia highlight a problem that international companies have long been aware of. The problem of widespread corruption in some countries, where officials often award contracts to the highest briber, not the lowest bidder, also presents a dilemma to many western businesspeople, particularly where anti-corruption principles are well laid down in their firm's own business charter. The firm must therefore establish clear guidelines for their staff who have to do business in countries where corruption is an increasing problem. These guidelines should help them decide whether or not to bid for business, in the first instance, and, if so, where and when to draw the line. The difficulties associated with doing business in foreign markets, however, should not deter firms from engaging in international marketing. Rather, these risks and problems must be identified by managers and planned for. Like all marketing activities, the chance of success is far higher when obstacles are anticipated rather than reacted to. The rest of this chapter is devoted to examining the important international marketing decisions that firms make. Figure 5.1 presents a framework for analysis, planning, implementation and control in relation to international marketing. The eight dimensions shown are useful for identifying the keys to foreign market success. Each dimension will be discussed in turn.
Analysis of International Market Opportunity Deciding Whether or Not to Go Abroad Doing international business successfully requires firms to take a market-led approach. A critical evaluation of why firms enter foreign markets shows that, in many cases, the practice of international business falls short of the market-led approach essential for long-term success. Firms must consider the factors that draw them into the international arena.
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Figure 5.1
International marketing planning model A surprisingly large proportion of sales to foreign markets are made in response to chance orders coming either from customers who are international players or from other sources such as foreign buyers attending a domestic exhibition. Such 'passive exporting' is not international marketing, although it contributes to international trade. It does not associate with the central principle of creating customer value and market targeting, there i.s little assessment of critical factors for competitive success, and it is unlikely to build a long-term market position, Limited domestic growth and/or intense domestic competition is a key reason why firms enter foreign markets and was a prime motivator behind the Japanese companies' overseas expansion programme during the 1970s and 1980s. In practice, many firms quickly suspend foreign market activity when the domestic economy improves or when they fail to make money in the overseas operation. Finns driven to exporting because of domestic recession often fail to anticipate the wider external constraints to doing business in a foreign market and tend to take a short-term orientation to international marketing.3 Furthermore, companies that are struggling to survive at home are highly unlikely to successfully take on and beat sophisticated competitors in foreign markets. The domestic market must be secured first before going abroad and it should be maintained thereafter. Japan's top two car manufacturers, Toyota and Nissan, are arch rivals at home. They took this rivalry overseas and in the process have raised the level of competitive activity to new heights in North America and Europe, while striving to remain strong performers in their home base. Geographic market diversification to reduce country-specific risk - that is, the risk of operating in only one country, due to different political-economic cycles - is a popular reason behind firms' international expansion drive. Firms must understand that market needs may be strikingly different, even for apparently similar products, and that different management skills and approaches are needed for different country markets. So, managers must weigh the costs and barriers to global diversification against the benefits of risk reduction.
Ancdyifis of international Market Opportunity
Asia; a growing market. Thin Hongkong-Bank ad reinforces die region's potential, and illustrates /lote the bank can meet the needs of its international customers.
Firms spread the costs of production over more units if output is expanded for overseas markets. While economies of scale give firms a strong incentive to expand into foreign markets, the firm must also take on board additional administration, selling, distribution and marketing co.sts. A 'cost-led' approach or a 'selling orientation' in international marketing is unlikely to lead to long-term success. Without H marketing-led orientation, where customers' needs are identified and satisfied, and die firm's marketing mix adapted for the foreign market, the international business activity of the firm is unlikely to flourish. In summary, firms enter overseas markets for profits and/or survival. But firms must not confuse exporting with international marketing. The latter is about taking a long-term perspective of foreign market potential and relentlessly adopting a market-led approach to identifying, anticipating and satisfying the needs of customers in target international markets. Before going abroad, the firm must weigh the risks and question its ability to ope rate globally. Can the company learn to understand the preferences and buying behaviour of customers in other country markets? Can it offer competitively attractive products? Will it be able to adapt to other countries' business cultures and to deal effectively with foreign nationals? Do the company's managers have the requisite international experience? Has management considered the impact of foreign regulations and political environments? International marketing is really about exploiting market opportunities based upon sound environment and specific market analyses.
Understanding the Global Environment Before deciding whether or not to sell abroad, a company must thoroughly understand the international marketing environment. That environment has changed a
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190 • Chapter 5 The Global Marketplace Many companies have made the world their market: opening the megaxtore in Milan (top left) and Virgin megagtares m London, Los Angeles, Vienna and Tokyo.
tariff A tax levied by a government against certain imported products. Tariff* are designed to raise revenue or to protect domes tic firms. quota A limit on the amount of goods that an importing country will accept in certain product categories; it is designed to conserve on foreign exchange and to protect local industry and employment.
great deal in the last two decades, creating both new opportunities and new problems. The world economy has globalized. First, world trade and investment have grown rapidly, with many attractive markets opening up in western and eastern Europe, Russia, China, the Pacific Rim and elsewhere. Official sources suggest that world trade in goods grew by 8 per cent in volume terms and FDI rose some 40 per cent over 1996 alone. In tact, during the 1990s, international trade has grown faster titan world output.4 There has been a growth of global brands in motor vehicles, food, clothing, electronics and many other categories. The number of global companies has grown dramatically. While the United States' dominant position in world trade has declined, other countries, such as Japan and Germany, have increased their economic power in world markets (see Marketing Highlight 5.1). The international financial system has become more complex and fragile. In some country markets, foreign companies face increasing trade barriers, erected to protect domestic markets against outside competition. There has also been increasing concern among members outside the European Union that 'Fortress Europe' presents greater harriers to penetrating the EU markets. Japanese car plants, for example, have been attracted to the United Kingdom by the thought that they can by-pass the EU's restrictions on imports of Japanese cars.
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The international Trade System
The company looking abroad must develop an understanding of the international trade system. When selling to another country, the firm faces various trade restrictions. The most common is the tariff, which is a tax levied by a foreign government against certain imported products. The tariff may be designed either to raise revenue or to protect domestic firms: for example, those producing motor vehicles in Malaysia and whisky and rice in Japan, The exporter also may face a quota, which sets limits on the amount of goods the importing country will accept
Anaiyiiis of Intiirriational Market Opportunity * 191 in certain product categories. The purpose of the quota is to conserve foreign exchange and to protect local industry and employment. An embargo is the strongest form of quota, which totally bans some kinds of import. Firms may face exchange controls that limit the amount of foreign exchange and the exchange rate against other currencies. The company may also face nontariff trade barriers, such as biases against company bids or restrictive product standards that favour or go against product features.5 At the same time, certain forces help trade between nations. Examples are the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (replaced by the World Trade Organization in 1993) and various regional free trade agreements.
• The General Agreement, on Tariffs and Trade/ *J •'•/ Word Trade Organization The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is an international treaty designed to promote world trade by reducing tariffs and other international trade barriers. There have been eight rounds of GATT talks since its inception in 1948, in which member nations reassess trade barriers and set new rules for international trade. The first seven rounds of negotiations reduced average worldwide tariffs on manufactured goods from 45 per cent to around 4 per cent in industrial countries. The most recent GATT round, the Uruguay round, ended in 1993. Although the benefits of the Uruguay round will not be felt for many years, the new accord should promote robust long-term global trade growth. It reduces the world's remaining manufactured goods tariffs by 30 per cent, which could boost global merchandise trade by up to 10 per cent, or $270 billion in current US dollars, by the year 2002. The Uruguay round did much more than cut tariffs on goods. It heralded a big institutional change, creating the World Trade Organization (WTO) as a successor to GATT. WTO now boasts 132 members. It also introduced three big changes to world trade rules. First, it began to open up the most heavily protected industries: agriculture and textiles. Second, it vastly extended the scope of international trade rules to cover services as well as goods. New issues, such as the use of spurious technical barriers and health regulations to keep out imports and the protection of foreigners' 'intellectual property', such as patents and copyright, were addressed for the first time. The third big change brought by the Uruguay round was the creation of a new system for settling disputes. In the past, countries could (and sometimes did) break (5ATT rules with impunity. Under the new system, decisions can be blocked only by a consensus of WTO members. Once found guilty of breaking the rules, and sifter appeal, countries are supposed to mend their ways. Under the WTO international trade issues continue to be addressed. As the new WTO builds up its credibility, more and more countries, including China, arc wanting to join/'
Regional Free-Trade Zones In recent years, we have seen the growth of regional free-trade zones or economic communities - groups of nations organized to secure common goals in the regulation of international trade. One such community is the European Union, which aims to create a single European market by reducing physical, financial and technical harriers to trade among member nations.7 Other free-trade communities exist. In fact, almost every member of the WTO is also a member of one or more such communities. And, of the one
embargo A ban on the import of a certain product. exchange controls Government limits on the amount of its country 'K foreig n exchange smith other countries and on its exchange rate against other currencies. non-tariff trade barriers Non-mrmetary barriers to foreign products, such UK biases against a foreign company's bidn or product standards that go against«foreign company's product features.
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World-Class Marketing: The Japanese
Marketiri; and radio receivers. At other times, they start with a product that is as good as the competition's but priced lower, such as radios and televisions, or with a product of higher quality or incorporating new features, as in the case of cars and photocopiers. The Japanese line up good distribution channels in order to provide quick service. They also use effective advertising to bring their products to the consumers' attention. Their basic entry strategy is to build market share rather than early profits, and they are often willing to wait as long as a decade before realizing their profits. Building market share. Once Japanese firms gain a market foothold, they begin to expand their market share. Money is poured into product improvements and new models so that they can offer more and better products than the competition does. They spot new opportunities through market segmentation, develop markets in new countries, and work to build a network of world markets and production locations. Protecting market share. Once the Japanese achieve market leadership, they become defenders rather than attackers. Their defence strategy is continuous product development and refined market segmentation. Their philosophy is to make 'tiny improvements in a thousand places'. Recently, some experts have questioned whether Japanese companies can sustain their push towards global marketing dominance. They suggest that tfie Japanese emphasis on the longterm market share over short-term profits and their ability to market high-quality products at low prices have come at the expense of their employees, stockholders and communities. They note that, compared to western firms, Japanese companies work their employees longer hours, pay their stockholders lower dividends, and eontribute less to community and environmental causes. Other analysts, however, predict that Japan's marketing success is likely to continue.
Highlight
Few dispute that the Japanese have performed an economic miracle since the Second World War, In a very short time, they have achieved global market leadership in many industries: motor vehicles, watches, cameras, optical instruments, steel, shipbuilding, computers and consumer electronics. They have made strong inroads into tyres, chemicals, machine tools and financial services, and even designer clothes, cosmetics and food. Some credit the global success of Japanese companies to their unique business and management practices. Others point to the help they get from Japan's government, powerful trading companies and banks. Still others say Japan's success was based on low wage rates and unfair dumping policies. In any ease, one of the main keys to Japan's success is certainly its skilful use of marketing. The Japanese came to the United States to study marketing and went home understanding it better than many US companies do. They know how to select a market, enter it in the right way, build market share and protect that share against competitors. Having practised and seen how well it works in the US market, the Japanese came to Europe with the same game plan. Selecting markets. The Japanese work hard to identify attractive global markets. First, they look for industries that require high skills and high labour intensity, but few natural resources. These include consumer electronics, cameras, watches, motorcycles and pharmaceuticals. Second, they prefer markets in which consumers around the world would be willing to buy the same product designs. Finally, they look for industries in which the market leaders are weak or complacent. Entering markets. Japanese study teams spend several months evaluating a target market and searching for market niches that are not being satisfied. Sometimes they start with a low-priced, stripped-down version of a product, fike cameras
Analysis of international Market Opportunity • 193
In America and Europe, western firms that have survived the Japanese onslaught are fighting back by adding new product lines, pricing more aggressively, streamlining production, buying or making components abroad and forming strategic partnerships with foreign companies. With the help of a weakened Japanese economy, a soaring yen and strong political trade pressures, western companies are winning back market share in industries ranging from automobiles and earthmovers to semiconductors and computers. Many companies are also gaining ground in Japan. US firms, for example, hold leading market shares; Coke leads in soft drinks (60 per cent share), Schick in razors (71 per cent), Polaroid in instant cameras (66 per cent), and McDonald's in fast food. Procter & Gamble markets the leading brand in several categories, ranging from disposable nappies and liquid laundry detergents to acne treatments. A growing number of European companies have successfully penetrated the daunting Japanese market. Success, however, has not been limited to large companies like Glaxo or those with well-established marques. For example, Teknek Electronics, a small British company which makes a precision machine that cleans sheet materials in the printed circuit industry, successfully entered the Japanese market despite its chief competitor in the market being a Japanese machine. Solid State Logic, a relatively young British company that makes professional audio equipment, has made significant progress within 20 months of setting up its subsidiary in Japan. In the consumer market, Foseco, a speciality chemicals maker, sold its Sedex filters at a loss for one year in Japan while it set up local production to meet intense domestic price competition. It emerged from the trauma with 55 per cent of the Japanese market, and a reduction in production costs that enabled it to bring its own sales price down by 30 per cent. Foseeo Japan now sells three times as many different types and sizes of Sedex filter as any Fosceo company. The success of western companies in Japan stems largely from the firms' willingness to meet
the Japanese market on its own, highly competitive terms. The key ingredients for success are: not treating the Japanese market as any other market; a high-L]uality or latest technology product; a high level of commitment to - invariably meaning a high level of investment in - the market; an ability to respond efficiently to specific market segment needs; and an understanding of the specific business culture. For most consumer products, tying up with a local distributor or partner is critical. Understanding the complex distribution system with its layers of wholesalers, and having the patience to handle it, are crucial in Japan because it is difficult to get products on the shelves by directly approaching the retailer. A strong marketing plan, encompassing intensive and aggressive advertising, and close co-operation with wholesalers and retailers, is also essential, not only to reach and impress the consumer, but also to convince the wholesaler and the retail buyers that the firm is serious about its product In fact, very similar ingredients are found in western and Japanese overseas marketing success recipes. These all point to one outstanding dimension - superior marketing - as reflected in the firms' focus on market needs, sustained commitment to product and market development, and environmental, particularly cultural, sensitivity. This suggests that the broad principles for success in international marketing are not country specific, but readily transferable to other national players. SOURCES; See Peter Doyle, John Saunders and Veronica Wong, 'Competition in global markets: a case study of American mid Japanese competition in the British market', Journal of International Business Studies, 23, ,1 (1992), pp. 419-42; Miehiyo Xakamoto, 'British companies reap benefits (it Japanese markets'. Financial '/fines (8 May 1991), p. 6; Miehiyo XakamoEO, 'Use the system, win shelf space', Financial Times (16 February 1994), p. 19; Philip Kotler, Liam F;ihey and Somkid Jatusripitak, The Neva Competition (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentiee Hall, 1985); Vernon R. Alden, 'Who says you can't crack Japanese markets?', Harvard Business /Jews* (January-February 1987), pp. 52-6, Ford S. Worthy, 'Keys to Japanese success in Asia', Fortune (7 October 1991), pp, 157-60; 'Why Japan must change', Fortune (9 March 1992), pp. 66-7.
194 • Chapters The Global Marketplace Income distribution: Even poorer countries may have small but wealthy segments. Although citizens of Budapest. Hungary have relatively loiv annual incomes, well-dressed shoppers flock to elegant stores like this one, stocked with luxury goods.
hundred or so free-trade arrangements listed by the WTO, over half have come into being in the 1990s (see Marketing Highlight 5,2).
•
Economic Environment
The international marketer must study each country's economy. Two economic factors reflect the country's attractiveness a.s a market: the country's industrial structure and its income distribution. The country's industrial structure shapes its product and service needs, income levels and employment levels. Four types of industrial structure should be considered: 1.
Subsistence economies. In a subsistence economy, the vast majority of people engage in simple agriculture. They consume most of their output and barter the rest for simple goods and services. They offer few market opportunities. 2. Raw-rnaterial-exporting economies. These economies are rich in one or more natural resources, but poor in other ways. Much of their revenue comes from exporting these resources. Examples are Chile (tin and copper), Zaire (copper, cobalt and coffee) and Saudi Arabia (oil). These countries are good markets for large equipment, tools and supplies, and trucks. If there are many foreign residents and a wealthy upper class, they are also a market for luxury goods. 3. Industrializing economies. In an industrializing economy, manufacturing accounts for 10—20 per cent of the country's economy. Examples include China, the Philippines, India and Brazil. As manufacturing increases, the country needs more imports of raw textile materials, steel and heavy machinery, and fewer imports of finished textiles, paper products and motor vehicles. Industrialization typically creates a new rich class and a small but growing middle class, both demanding new types of imported goods. In China, for example, people with rising disposable income want to spend on items such as fashion, video recorders, CD players and instant coffee.
Analysis of International Market Opportunity • 195 4.
Industrial economies. Industrial economies are large exporters of manufactured goods and investment funds. They trade goods among themselves and also export them to other types of economy for raw materials and semi-finished goods. The varied manufacturing aetivities of these industrial nations and their large middle class make them rich markets for all sorts of goods. Asia's newly industrialized economies, such as Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea and Malaysia, fall into this eategory.
The second economic factor is the country's income distribution. The international marketer might find countries with one of five different income distribution patterns: (1) very low family incomes; (2) mostly low family incomes; (3) very low/very high family incomes; (4) low/medium/high family incomes; and (5) mostly medium family incomes. However, even people in low-income countries may find ways to buy products that are important to them, or sheer population numbers can counter low average incomes. Also, in many cases, poorer countries may have small but wealthy segments of upper-income consumers: In the US the first satellite dishes sprang up in the poorest parts of Appalachia ., The poorest slums of Calcutta are home to 70,000 VCRs. In Mexico, homes with colour televisions outnumber those with running water. Remember also that low average-income figures may conceal a lively luxury market. In Warsaw (average income: 02,500) well-dressed shoppers flock to elegant boutiques stocked with Christian Dior perfume and Valentino shoes .. In China, where per capita income is less than S600, the Swiss company Rado is selling thousands of its 81,000 watches.' Thus, international marketers face many challenges in understanding how the economic environment will affect decisions about which global markets to enter and how.
Political-Legal Environment Nations differ greatly in their political-legal environments. At least four politicallegal factors should be considered in deciding whether to do business in a given country: attitudes towards international buying, political stability, monetary regulations and government bureaucracy. We will consider each oi' these in turn.
ATTITUDES TOWARDS INTERNATIONAL BUYING. Some nations are quite
receptive to foreign firms, and others are quite hostile. Western firms have found newly industrialized countries in the Par East attractive overseas investment locations. In contrast, others like India are bothersome with their import quotas, currency restrictions and limits on the percentage of the management team that can be non-nationals. Switzerland remains a difficult market for many imports as protectionism, mainly in the form of technical barriers, is rampant, and the cantonical governments remain reluctant to buy anything outside their borders.4 In Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, after an initial infatuation with all things 'western', a backlash has started as national pride reasserts itself and consumers begin to resent the commercial advance from the West.10 POLITICAL STABILITY. Governments change hands, sometimes violently. Even without a change, a government may decide to respond to new popular feel-
196 • Chapter 5 The Global Marketplace
Regional Free-Trading Groups: Blocking Up
Marketing Highlight
form of proliferating rules and regulations. For instance, 22 of the 24 regional agreements being . analyzed by the WTO contain their own anti-dumping provisions, 18 have provisions relating to subsidies, 19 deal with competition policy and 12 have their own disputes settlement procedures. Some experts fear this trend could undermine the WTO's rules-based system by encouraging the spread of regional regulations that conflict with it. It is hard to be sure just how serious a risk this is, because of the weakness of procedures for vetting whether regional groups are compatible with WTO rules. These problems are finally starting to be addressed. A formal WTO committee is examining regional trade arrangements. However, developing firm and workable disciplines, which command support from all WTO members, will take many years. Much work is still needed to clarify countries' often differing interpretations of the GATT/WTO rules on regional trade agreements and to define more precisely areas of incompatibility. Furthermore, the new committee seeks to set up effective procedures for reaching decisions and for reviewing regularly the operation of existing regional arrangements. Where these are found inconsistent with WTO rules, some mechanism will be needed to ensure they fail back in line.
5.2
The growth of regional trade arrangements has excited keen controversy in recent years. More than 100 have been formed, 29 since 1992, and almost all the roughly 130 members of. the World Trade Organization belong to one or more of them. Figure 1 shows the main regional trade groups. More recently, the EU, 11 southern Mediterranean governments and the Palestine National Authority launched the 'EuroMediterranean partnership' zone, which creates a new trading bloc. Goods made in countries such as Morocco and Turkey will gain free access to the single European market. By 2010 it is envisaged that the Mediterranean basin will be open for reciprocal free trade in most manufactured goods and services ~ creating a trading bloc to rival the North American Free Trade Agreement ;md the Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation forum. In Asia, the fashion for regionalism is in the ascendant. One example is die recent push for a free-trade area embracing the seven-member Association of South East Asian Nations. Another is the Asia Pacific Economic Go-operation forum, two thirds of whose 18 members arc Asian, By lowering barriers between national markets, such groupings can make life easier for exporters - provided they operate inside the club. If they are outsiders, however, they risk facing continued discrimination and - where regional trade arrangements overlap - confusion. Enthusiasts say regional groupings promote free trade by acting as building blocks, which can eventually unite. But sceptics fear the more likely result will be to fragment the global economy into mutually exclusive, possible warring, blocs. Regionalism is undoubtedly posing another type of challenge to the world trade system, in the
CK.S: Paul Magjausson, ''Free trade': They can hardly wait', Business Week (14 September 1992), pp. 24-5; Andrew Hilton, 'Mythology, markets, and the emerging Europe', Harvard Business Revieiv [November-December 1992), pp. 50-4; Larry Armstrong, 'NAFTA isn't out, but it sure is down', Business Week (22 March 1993), pp. 30-1; Guy do Jonquieres, 'Ruilding blocks or warring blocs?', Financial Times, FT Exporter, 11 ( Spring 1996), p. 3; Jon Marks. 'New kids on the Eurotrading bloc'. Financial Times, FT Exporter, 11 (Spring 19%), p. 7.
ings. The foreign company's property may be taken, its currency holdings may be blocked, or import quotas or new duties may be set. International marketers may find it profitable to do business in an unstable country, but the unsteady situation will affect how they handle business and financial matters.
Analysis of International Market Opportunity •
ANDEAN PACT
Venezuela, Colombia. Ecuador, Porn, Bolivia
EU
EFTA
European Free Trade Association Norway. Switzerland, Iceland. Liechtenstein
European Union
AFTA
Belgium. France, Italy, Luxembourg. Germany. Netherlands, UK, Denmark. Greece, Ireland, Spain, Portugal. Austria, Finland, Sweden
Asian Free Trade Area Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore,Thailand. Vietnam (limited member)
NAFTA North American Free. Trade Agreement US, Canada, Mexico (Chile next to join)
SADC
South African Development Committee Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique. South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania. Zimbabwe
SAARC
APEC
MERCOSUR
South Asian Association for Regional Co-op eraiian
Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation
Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Maldives, Bhutan. Nepal
Australia, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore.Thailand, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Philippines,Taiwan, Hong Kong.Japan. South Korea, China, Canada. US, Mexico, Chile
UEMOA West African Economic & Monetary Union Ivory Coast, Niger,Togo, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Benin, Mali
FIGURE 1 THE MAIN REGIONAL TRADE GROUPS
MONETARY REGULATIONS Sellers want to take their profits in a currency of value to them. Ideally, the buyer can pay in the seller's currency or in other world currencies. Short of this, sellers might accept a blocked currency - one whose removal from die country is restricted by the buyer's government - if they
197
198
•
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The Global Marketplace
uounterlrade International trade involving Che direct or inilirect exchange of goods/or other goods instead of cash. Forms include barter compensation (buyback) and counterpurchase.
can buy other goods in that country that they need themselves or can sell elsewhere for a needed currency. Besides currency limits, a changing exchange rate, as mentioned earlier, creates high risks for the seller. Most international trade involves cash transactions. Many Third World and former Eastern bloc nations do not have access to hard currency or credit terms to pay for their purchases from other countries. So western companies, rather than lose the opportunity of a good deal, will accept payment in kind, which has led to a growing practice called countertrade. Countertrade is nothing new and was the way of doing business before money was invented. Today it accounts for about 25 per cent of all world trade. Countertrade takes several forms. Barter involves the direct exchange of goods or services. For example, British coal mining equipment has been 'sold' for Indonesian plywood; Volkswagen cars were swapped for Bulgarian dried apricots; and Boeing 747s, fitted with Rolls-Royce engines, were exchanged for Saudi oil. Another form is compensation (or buyback), whereby the seller sells a plant, equipment or technology to another country and agrees to take payment in the resulting products. Thus, Goodyear provided China with materials and training for a printing plant in exchange for finished labels. Another form is counterpurchase. Here the seller receives full payment in cash, but agrees to spend some portion of the money in the other country within a stated time period. For example, Pepsi sells it syrup to Russia for roubles, and agrees to buy Russian vodka for reselling in the United States. Countertrade deals can be very complex. For example, Daimler-Benz recently agreed to sell 30 trucks to Romania in exchange for 150 Romanian jeeps, which it then sold to Ecuador for bananas, which were in turn sold to a German supermarket chain for German currency. Through this roundabout process, DaimlerBenz finally obtained payment in German money.11 For some firms the bartering system has worked. However, companies must be aware of the complexities and/or the limits: Rank Xerox, trying to sell high technology to Russia, not surprisingly drew the line at accepting payment in racing camels and goat horns! GOVERNMENT BUREAUCRACY. A fourth factor is the extent to which the host government runs an efficient system for helping foreign companies: efficient customs handling, good market information and other factors that aid in doing business. A common shock to western husinesspeople is how quickly barriers to trade disappear if a suitable payment (bribe) is made to some official (see Marketing Highlight 5.3).
• Cultural Environment and Building Cultural Empathy
culture The set of basic values, purt_-eptiim.s, wants and behaviours learned by a member of society from family and other important institutions.
Each country has its own traditions, norms and taboos. The seller must examine the way consumers in different countries think about and use certain products before planning a marketing programme. The cultural barriers in target country markets must be identified. Culture is defined simply as the learned distinctive way of life of a society. The dimensions of culture include: the social organization of society (e.g. the class system in the United Kingdom, the caste system in India, the heavy reliance on social welfare in Sweden or the lack of it in Japan); religion (ranging from the Islamic fundamentalism of Iran to the secular approaches of western countries sxieh as the United Kingdom); customs and rituals; values and attitudes towards domestic and international life; education provision and literacy levels; political system; aesthetic systems (e.g. folklore, music, arts, literature); and language. Culture permeates the lifestyles of customer targets and is manifested through the behavioural patterns of these customers. Culture and people's general
Analysis uf International Market Opportunity • 199 Muviour influence the customer's actions in the marketplace, which, in turn, impact upon the firm's marketing decisions. There are often surprises. For mniple, the average Frenchman uses almost twice as many cosmetics and aids as does his wife. The Germans and the French cat more packaged,
To Bribe or Not?
Marketing Highlight 5.3
In Germany, the tax office gives tacit approval to backhanders: bribes are tax-deductible. The exact extent of the corruption is not known, but experts reckon that in the German public sector contracts alone, the volume is at least DM20 billion a year. Such corruption is rarely exposed to the public, of course, but in Germany it is by all accounts a widespread and profitable affair. It starts out at local council level and goes on up the chain. There have been a few sensational cases in the past 20 years. The Flick affair revealed in the 1980s the substantial payments an industrialist made to Germany's main political parties. In another case, Eduard Swick, a Bavarian businessman, was alleged to have paid leading members of the Bavarian government, including the late president Franz Josef Strauss, in return for help in his but tie with tax collectors. Outside government circles, the most spectacular corruption case has been the Herzklappen affair, whereby doctors were alleged to have colluded with manufacturers in overcharging health insurers for heart valves. In Germany, a company can offset any bribes it makes as a necessary business expense. All the finance authorities ask for is the name of the recipient of the bribe. The information is not used specifically to track down the corrupt official who, by taking the bribe, is actually breaking the law - but simply to ensure that he or she declares the money received on his or her tax return. Unlike domestic corruption, the bribery of people in a foreign country is not an offence in Germany. Moreover, German companies are not alone in adopting this practice. Only in the t'niied States, which passed the Foreign Gorrupt Practices Act in 1977, are such payments illegal. Not surprisingly, the US Department of Trade complains of unfair competition when confronted
with these modes of working by European companies, especially in developing countries. Naturally, there are German parliamentary members who want to see changes. Ingomar Hanchler, a Social Democratic member of parliament, argued that corruption damages free competition and subverts the market economy while also encouraging monopolies, which can pay most. But there are those who disagree, saying that bribery is a necessary vehicle for business. Outlawing it would damage German firms in the international market and threaten jobs. The federation of German industry, the BD1, also challenges the view that bribes should be considered corrupt, maintaining that unusual payments are not bribes at all, but an essential expense and marketing cost. What would a keen British businessperson hoping to invest in a deprived east German town do to get fast entry into this market? Well, one such British businessman hoping to invest in the town of Potsdam, near Berlin, did the unthinkable (by German standards!): The British businessman was confronted with an unusual offer from a local politician. Pay DM25,000 consultancy fee to a law company, the politician told him, and your case will be dealt with quickly and to your satisfaction. Needless to say, the British executive knew the official bad connections with the law firm in question and what the money was for and where it was going. lie chose not to pay the 'consultancy fee', in refusing, he was probably an exception. He also did not get to invest in the town of Potsdam. SOURCE: Frederick Stiidemann, 'A land where bribes are taxdediitiiible'. The Eurupean (17-23 June 1994), p. 3.
200 • Chapter 5 The Global Marketplace branded spaghetti than do Italians. Italian children like to eat chocolate bars between slices of bread as a snack. Women in Tanzania will not give their children eggs for fear of making them bald or impotent. A good example of cultural differences is the case of a Scandinavian company wishing to sell baby clothes in Belgium. It discovered its clothes were virtually unsaleable because, in most regions, clothes for baby girls are trimmed with blue and those for baby boys with pink. Business norms and behaviour also vary from country to country. The unwary business executive needs to be briefed on these factors before conducting business in another country. Mistakes due to laek of understanding of foreign business behaviour affect business relations greatly. Here are some examples of different global business behaviour: •
•
•
•
•
In face-to-face communications, Japanese business executives rarely say 'no' to the western business executive. Thus westerners tend to be frustrated and may not know where they stand. Where westerners come to the point quickly, Japanese business executives may find this behaviour offensive. In France, wholesalers don't want to promote a product. They ask their retailers what they want and deliver it. If a foreign company builds its strategy around the French wholesaler's co-operation in promotions, it is likely to fail. When British executives exchange business cards, each usually gives the other's card a cursor;' glance and stuffs it in a poeket for later reference. In Japan, however, executives dutifully study each other's cards during a greeting, carefully noting company affiliation and rank. They hand their card to the most important person first. In the United Kingdom and the United States, business meals are common. In Germany, these are strictly social. Foreigners are rarely invited to dinner and such an invitation suggests a very advanced association. The opposite applies in Italy where entertaining is an essential part of business life (guests should offer to pay but, in the end, should defer to their Italian host). In France, watch out. There are two kinds of business lunch - one for building up relations, without expecting anything in return, and the other to discuss a deal in the making or to celebrate a deal afterwards. Deals, however, should be concluded in the office, never over a lunch table. Shaking hands on meeting and on parting is common in Germany, Belgium. France and Italy. Ignoring this custom, especially in France, causes offence. In France, it is advisable to shake hands with everyone in a crowded room.
The key to success for the international marketer lies in assiduously researching and coming to terms with a country's culture. The firm must build cultured empathy and overcome the cultural differences with a view to establishing long- J term market position. Cultural empathy is achieved in a number of ways: •
•
•
Acquire in-company knowledge and experience. This is a slow and arduous approach, but it does provide a lasting means for understanding foreign culture. Continuous market research. The firm should undertake market research for general background information as well as commission more specific research for individual projects. Visit foreign country and customers. This is invaluable for developing firsthand knowledge of customers and markets. Such activities also build
Deciding which Markets to Enter * 201 goodwill, clearly show the firm's commitment to the markets served and yield valuable feedback to the company's home base. Hire local personnel. Local personnel may be employed to speed up information gathering. This bus been the approach used by many Japanese multinational firms in overseas markets. Sound local market knowledge helps to develop marketing strategies that are better geared to local requirements and conditions. i'st distributors/agents. Firms may gain inside information from local distributors or agents who are familiar with the marketplace. Baskin Robhin's, an American ice-cream maker, relied on its sales agent, a subsidiary of the military-run China Satellite Launch and Tracking Control Group, for its knowledge of how to work the Chinese bureaucracy in order to bring its US-made ice cream through customs.1' Joint-ventures and strategic alliances. Firms accelerate the process of building cultural sensitivity through a joint venture or alliance with a host country company. The Japanese market, as mentioned earlier, is noted for its complex distribution system. To succeed foreign firms are advised to form strategic partnerships with loeal Japanese firms and to get to grips with the 'chosen people' problem.0 The typical Japanese businessman, like many of his western counterparts, regards his own culture as the world's most nearly perfect. Thus, when foreigners are on Japanese turf, they would do well to learn, respect and observe as many local customs as possible. Build language skills. Language is an essential part of a country's culture. It is important to distinguish between the cultural and technical aspects of language. The technical characteristics are easily learnt and readily available in translation dictionaries and language courses. The cultural empathy derives from a deep understanding of the language and its use in both the verbal anci non-verbal forms.11 A lack of cultural understanding of language leads to errors in translation which ean be, at best, embarrassing to both parties and, at worst, offensive to the host client/customer (see Marketing Highlight 5.4).
Deciding which Markets to Enter Defining Internationa) Marketing Objectives and Policies The company should define its international marketing objectives and policies. First, it should decide what volume of foreign sales it wants. Most companies start small when they go abroad. Some plan to stay small, seeing foreign sales as a small part of their business. Other companies have bigger plans, seeing foreign business as equal to or even more important than their domestic business. Second, the company must choose koi& many countries it wants to market in. Generally, it makes better sense to operate in fewer countries with deeper penetration in each. Third, the company must decide on the types of country to enter. A country's attractiveness depends on the product, geographical factors, income and population, political climate and other factors. The seller may prefer certain country groups or parts of the world.
202 • Chapter 5 Tw Global Marketplace
Mind Your Language
ncath this, it told them how to find competitors' dealers by showing a pair of binoculars. Another ad focused on Xerox's reliability. This showed a skyscraper of paper standing behind a Xerox machine with the line 'Only Xerox has to pass this simple test.' Aspen brought over 20 marketing managers from eastern Europe to take them through the basics of advertising and marketing strategy. The intention was to underline what it is that makes Xerox good value, and the manager's role in putting this across. They were provided with enough information and materials to create mailshots to go out to locally sourced customer lists. The packs followed a standard direct marketing format, containing a leaflet, covering letter and incentives to try out Xerox products. The marketing managers' training also included advice about how to organize local door-to-door distributions. This may seem an unusual approach for Xerox, but the dealers in eastern Europe were small businesses operating separately, so it was important that individual operators communicated one cohesive Xerox image. There were striking differences between how Xerox dealers in eastern Europe and the UK operated. In Moscow one dealer was situated In a flat 14 floors up. Some dealers operated from teashops. In Warsaw it was different again: there
were more showrooms, but in one there was a machine actually being repaired in the middle of the shop. There was little point following a standard point-of-sale approach. A modular solution was devised with blocks of point-of-sale materials, including leaflet dispensers, stickers and pens, for dealers to choose the items that best suited their needs. The success of the campaign, from advertising through to Xerox branding, was one factor that led to Xerox achieving an SO per cent sales growth in almost every European country in 1994. The increased sales were also due to economic growth in these countries, and an increase in the number of Xerox dealers. The branding of dealers was particularly successful. Since the initial exercise that began in 1993, all Xerox dealers (which now total 400) have received new branding kits to reflect Xerox's latest image. This is recognizable by its use of a big red 'X' logo. Management believes today's marketing campaigns in eastern Europe must, however, use different approaches from the ones that succeeded just a few years ago. This is to keep up with the rapidly evolving market.
Soillif.'E: Daney Parker, 'The X files', Marketing Week (8 March 1996), pp. 73-4.
firms that operate globally achieve lower costs and higher brand awareness. At the same time, global -marketing is risky because of variable exchange rates, unstable governments, protectionist tariffs and trade barriers, and several other factors. Given the potential gains and risks of international marketing, companies need to adopt a systematic approach to making international marketing decisions. We examined eight components of international marketing planning. First, a company must analyze the international market opportunity open to it. To do this managers must understand the global marketing environment, especially the international trade system. The company must assess each foreign market's economic, political-legal and cultural characteristics. The company decides whether to go abroad based on a consideration of the potential risks and benefits. Second, it has to decide which country markets it wants to enter. The decision calls for determining the volume of foreign sales - assuming there is high product potential - and how many countries to market in, having weighed the probable rate of return on investment against the level of risk. Third, the company must decide how to enter each chosen market - whether through exporting, joint venturing or direct investment. Many companies start as exporters, move to joint ventures and finally make a direct investment in foreign markets. Increasingly, however, firms - domestic or international — use joint
220 • Chapters The Global Marketplace
ventures and even direct investments to enter a new country market for the first time. Fourth, the firm must allocate necessary resources to secure a foothold initially, and then to build a strong position in the market. Fifth, the firm must develop its strategic marketing plan, which must take stock of the level of adaptation or standardization appropriate for all elements of the marketing mix product, promotion, price and distribution channels. Next, the company has to organise its operational team to achieve effective strategy implementation. The firm may adopt different organizational structures for managing international operations. Most firms start with an export department and graduate to an international di'oiHion. A few become global organizations, with worldwide marketing planned and managed by the top officers of the company, who view the entire world as a single borderless market. Finally, managers should continually evaluate their international marketing programmes. Plans should be monitored and control procedures applied, when needed, to secure desired.performance.
Key Terms Ad a peed marketing mix 211 Communication adaptation 213 Contract manufacturing 205 Countertrade 198 Culture 198 Cultural universals 211 Direct investment 207 Embargo 191 Exchange controls 191 Export department 216
Exporting 203 Global firm 185 Global industry 185 Global marketing 185 Global organization 217 International division 216 Joint ownership 205 Joint venturing 204 Licensing 204 Management contracting 205
Non-tariff trade harriers 191 Product adaptation 212 Product invention 213 Quota 190 Standardized marketing mix 209 Straight product extension 212 Tariff 190
Discussing the Issues 1.
With all the problems facing companies tbat 'go global', why arc so many companies choosing to expand internationally? What arc the advantages of expanding beyond the domestic market?
2.
When exporting goods to a foreign country, a marketer may be faced with various trade restrictions. Discuss the effects these restrictions might have on an exporter's marketing mix: (a) tariffs; (b) quotas; and (c) embargoes.
3.
When Honda first introduced its luxury executive car - the Legend - into the European market in the mid-1980s, other European luxury car producers (e.g. Jaguar, Mercedes, BMW) were 'not impressed'. Some
even went so far as to declare; that: 'Honda's mass market appeal is no comparison; we are operating in die premium sector'. In 1990, Toyota, another established mass-market car producer, launched its luxury brand - the Lexus - which seized leadership from rival, Honda, and out-competes the Legend. The Lexus is also becoming a noteworthy marque among prestigious labels like Mercedes and BMW. Discuss the Japanese strategy of loug-tcrni commitment to international markets. What are the key lessons for European companies seeking to internationalize? How applicable arc these lessons to companies such as Ileinekeu (see Marketing Highlight 5.5), Xerox (see Marketing Highlight 5.6) and MeDonahfs (sec preview
References ' •
case), seeking to establish their brands in emerging markets ? 4,
5.
Imported products are usually more expensive, but not always: a Nikon camera is cheaper in London than in Tokyo. Why arc foreign prices sometimes higher and sometimes lower than domestic prices for exports? 'Dumping' leads to price savings to the consumer. Why do KU and US governments make dumping illegal? Is the use of anti-dumping duties an effective means of
221
dealing with the problem? What are the disadvantages to the consumer of dumping by foreign firms? 6.
Which type of international marketing organization would you suggest for the following companies: (a) Xerox selling a wide range of photocopying and document processing systems across the globe; (b) a US manufacturer of toys, marketing its products in Europe; and (c) Eriksson selling its full line of mobile telephones in the Far East?
Applying the Concepts 1.
Go to a large elcctronies and appliance store that sells products such as televisions, stereos, hairdryers and microwave; ovens. Pick one or two product categories to examine. • Make a list of brand names in the category and classify each name as being cither 'your home country' or 'foreign'. How did yon decide whether a brand was 'home' or 'foreign'? • Look at where these different brands were manufactured. Are any of the 'home' brands manufactured abroad and are any of the 'foreign' brands made locally? What does this tell you about how much international marketing is being done? Is 'global' a better term to describe some of these brands?
Entertainment, including movies, television programmes and music recordings, is America's second largest export category - only aircraft is larger, • Go to your college library and find several foreign magazines, local pictures, stories or ads featuring American entertainers. Study what you find. Look at the size and layout of the stories, and see if you can understand basically what is being said. Does American entertainment seem to be interesting or important to people in Europe or the rest of the world? What, if anything, do you think is appealing to them? •
India has the largest movie industry in the world, yet few Indian films are ever shown in Europe. Why do you think this is so? Suggest some ways that Indian movie companies might make a bigger impact in Europe.
References 'Johannesburgers and fries', The Economist (27 September 1997), pp. 107-8. For a good discussion of the differences between international, multinational and global marketing, see Warren J. Keegari, Global Marketing Management, 4th edn (Englewoocl Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989), pp. 6-11. C.P. Rao, M.K. Erramilli and G.K. Ganesh, 'impact of domestic recession on export marketing behaviour', International Marketing (ieuiew, 7, 2 (1990), pp. 54-65. 'All free traders now?', Tl'ie Kcoiiomisr (7 December 1996), pp. 25-9. For more on non-tariff and other harriers, see Carla Rapoport, 'The big split', Fortune (6 May 1991), pp. 38-48; Mark Maremont, 'Protectionism is king of the mad', Business Week (13 May 1991}, pp. 57-8. Philip B. Cateora, International Marketing, 8th edn (lloraewoc.d, 1L- Irwin, 1993), pp. 49-51; Louis S. Richraan, 'What's nest after GATT's victor,'?'. Fortune (10 January
1994), pp. 66-70; 'All free traders now', Tfus Economist (7 December 1996), pp. 25-7; 'School's brief: trade winds, The Economist (8 November 1997), pp. 124-5. Chris Halliburton and Reinhard Huncrberg, 'Marketing in a European environment' in id., European Marketing: Readings and coses (Wokingham, Berks: Add is on-Wesley, 1993), pp. 3-22; Colin Egan and Peter MeKieman, Inside Fortress Europe: Strategies for the sitigle market, the EIU series fWokingham, Berks 1 Addison-Wtsley, 1994); Brian Rothery, What Maastricht Means jbr Business (Aldershot: Gower, 1993). 8. Bill Saporito, 'Where the global aetion is', fortune, special issue on 'The tough new consumer' (Autumn-Winter 1993), pp. 62-5. Ian Rodger, The long journey to liberalisation', Finftncial Times Exporter, 11 (Spring 1996), p. 6. 10. Kile Partley, 'Russian gold rush slows to 3 hard slog', Daily Telegraph (5 April 1997), p. 16.
222 • Chapters The Global Marketplace 11. For further reading, see Leo 0. B. Welt, Trade Without Money: IStirter and aounfertra&e (New York: Ilarcourt Brace Jovanovie, 1984); Demos Vardiabasis, ' 'Countertrade': new ways of doing business', liMsiness to Business (December 1985), pp. 67-71; Louis Krtiar, 'How to sell to cashless buyers'. Fortune (1 November 1988), pp. 147-54; 'Pepsi to gut ships, vodka in $3 billion deal', Durham Morning Herald (10 May 1990), p. B5; Cyndee Miller, 'Worldwide money cruneh fuels niore international barter1, Marketing, News (2 March 1992), p. 5. 12. Gill Williams, 'Orient Express', Marketing Business (May 1995). pp. 36-9. 13. P. Reinstine, 'Selling to Japan: we did it their way', Kxport Today, 3, 3, pp. 19-24. 14. For more insight into the custom clash in Europe, see John Hole, Mind Your Mvavners: Culture clash in she fiurnpean single tnarkut (London- Industrial Society Press, 1990). 15. '1992: what are we fighting Sat?',Marketing Ihisiness (October 19S8), pp. 14-15. Hi. (!. J. IlooJey ;ind J. R. Newoombe, 'Ailing British exports: systems, causes and cures', Quarterly Review of Marketing (Summer 19S3). 17. See Peter Doyle, Veronica Wong and Vivieime Hlunv. 'Marketing strategies of international competitors in the UK machine tool market', Journal of Global Marketing, 8, 2 (1994), pp. 75-96; llooley and Neweombe, op. eit. . 18. See George S. Yip. 'Global strategy .. in a world of nations?', Sloan Management Review (Fall 1989), pp. 29-41: Kamran Kashani, 'Beware the pitfalls of global marketing', Harvard Business Review (September-October 1989). pp. 91-8;
19.
20.
21.
22.
23. 24.
Sated Saminee and Kendall Roth, The Influence of global marketing standardization on performance', Journal of Marketing (April 1992), pp. 1-17. See Keegan, (Mof^ Marketing Management, op. cit., pp. 378-81. See also see Peter G.P. Walters and Brian Toyne, Troduet modification and standardization in international markets: strategic options and facilitating policies', Columbia Journal of World Business (Winter 1*389), pp. 37-44. For these and other examples, see Andrew Kupfcr, 'How to be a global manager', Fdrtune (14 March 19S8), pp. 52-8; Maria Shao, 'For Levi's: a flattering fit overseas '.Business Week (5 November 1990), pp. 76-7; Joseph Weber. 'Campbell: now it's M-M-globaT, Business Week (15 March 1993), pp. 52-3; Hilary Clarke, 'Russia's turn for the Mane Claire treatment', Tim Kurapean (27 Fcbruary-5 Mareh 1997), p. 21. See Michael Oneal, 'Barley-Davidson: ready to hit the road again', Business Weuk (21 July 1986), p. 70; see also Guy dc Jont iiieres, 'High, duties against Japan', Financial Times (4 May 1994), p. 7. See KenlobJ Ohmae, 'Managing in a borderless world', Harvard Bits/ness Review (May-June 1989), pp. 152-61; William J. Holstein, 'The stateless corporation', Business Week (14 May 1990), pp. 9&-105; John A, Byrne and Kfithleen Kerwin, 'Borderless nianagement', liiissineag Week (23 May 1994), pp. 24-6. R. i h>wanl. The designer organisation: Italy's GIT goes global', Harvard Business Review (Heptember-October 1991), pp. 28-44. W. Taylor, 'The lojjic of global business', Harvard Business Review (March-April 1991), pp. 90-105.
Case 5 Procter & Gamble: Going Global in Cosmetics PROCTER & GAMBLE, THE MULTINATIONAL company- known for its household products Daz, Fairy, etc., has decided to expand its cosmetics business. The question is: can the firm that has got us to Pamper-away our babies wetness, Crest-away our cavities and Tide-away the grime in our clothes now get us to make up our faces? Step 1 Diversifying P & G's aggressive chairman, Edwin L. Artzt, thinks it can. The company tiptoed into the skin-care business in 1985 when it bought the Oil of Ulay skin-care line. Under Artzt's leadership, P & G then drove headlong into the cosmetics business. In 1989 it bought Noxell Corporation and its Cover Girl and Clarion brand cosmetics lines for $1.3 billion, A Baltimore pharmacist had founded Noxell in 1917 to sell little blue jars of a sunburn remedy he later named Noxzema skin cream. In the early 1960s, Noxell launched the Cover Girl Jine with a foundation cream designed
Case 5.1 Procter & Gambia • 22.1
to conceal acne. It used famous models to advertise the product and eventually became the best-selling mass-market eosmetics brand in the United States, overtaking Maybelline in 1986. Noxell had also been successful with its 1987 launch of Clarion, a line of moderately priced, mass-market eosmetics for sensitive skin. However, to develop its new businesses, as with its expensive Clarion introduction, Noxell had to take money from its Cover Girl and Noxzema marketing budgets. Consequently, in the late 1980s, these established brands were in danger of fading, Artxt saw the opportunity to strengthen Noxcll's marketing support with P & G's considerable resources while at the same time providing P & G with new growth opportunities outside its stable of mature products. Artzt also recognized that cosmetics carried high gross margins and resisted recessions. In 1990 P & G obtained 47.7 per cent of its £24.08 billion in total sales from personal-care products. About one-half of these wales came from paper products, including diapers. Another 32.2 per cent of its total sales came from laundry and cleaning products: 13.4 per cent from food and drinks and 6.7 percent from pulp and chemicals. After acquiring Noxell, Artzt turned P & G's marketers loose. They quickly redesigned Cover Girl's packaging, giving it an elegant look, but retained the brand's budget pricing strategy. P & G also sped up new product development. It hacked these changes with a 58 per cent increase in advertising, spending $47.5 million on Cover Girl in the first nine months of 1990 alone. Ads spotlighted famous models of various ages who featured a more natural look. By 1991 Cover Girl's market share had increased to 23 per cent, up from 21 per cent in 1986. Meanwhile Maybelline's share had fallen to 17 per cent, down from 19 per cent in 1986. Step 2 Going International P & G realized that it could not rest on its success. The cosmetics industry was changing, and P & G would have to change if it wanted to become a serious contender. Consumers were deserting department stores in droves, looking for distinctive brands offered by speciality clothing chains and cosmetics boutiques, such as The Body Shop. Analysts believed that women were tired of being assaulted as they entered department stores' cosmetics sections. Women wanted to buy cosmetics where they bought other items, which was increasingly in speciality shops. As a result, department store cosmetics sales were declining and mass merchandiser shares were increasing. The Cover Girl brand also faced problems. For example, the Cover Girl name suggested that the brand was for young, glamorous women, giving the line a built-in problem when appealing to career women, housewives and older women. In addition, Cover Girl generated 90 per cent of its sales in the United States, whereas the rest of the industry was increasingly going global. For these reasons, Artzt went shopping again. At the same time, New York financier Ronald Perelman had decided that he might need to sell Revlon, his beauty-products company. Perelman had bought Revlon in 1985 for SI.83 billion, following a bitterly hostile takeover. However, Perelman had used junk bonds to finance this and other deals, and found himself facing large debt repayments that caused a cash squeeze. As a result, Perelman considered selling some or all of Revlon's brands, including Max Factor and Almay cosmetics, Charlie and Jontou perfumes, and Flex shampoo. Several big firms besides P & G expressed an interest in Revlon. Like P & G, these other companies wanted to expand their cosmetics businesses through acquisitions. Unilever, the Anglo-Dutch multinational, began buying US personal-care brands in 1989. As a result of its Faberge and Elizabeth Arden
224
•
Chapter 5
The Global Market-place
acquisitions, Unilever held the no. 3 spot behind Estec Lauder and L'Oreal in sales at US department store cosmetics counters. Unilever had worldwide personal-care sales of §4,7 billion in 1990. Gesparal, SA owned the majority of Cosraair's L'Oreal, which had 1989 worldwide revenues of $5.3 billion. In turn. Nestle, the Swiss food conglomerate, owned 49 per cent of Gesparal. P & G was especially interested in Revlon's Max Factor and Betrix lines, because 80 per cent of their sales were outside the United States. These two brands would fit well with P & G's other lines and give the company a good basis to compete for a bigger share of the Bid billion worldwide cosmetics and fragrance business. In April 1991, Artzt announced that P & G would pay $1.1 billion for the two Rcvlon lines, which together captured $800 million in sales. Artzt decided not to buy Revlon's other big brands, which sold at higher prices in department stores. It turned out, however, that Artzt had more in mind than simply buying lines that would give P & G an international presence. He also saw opportunities to use the new brands' distribution and marketing networks to speed Cover Girls transition from a US brand to an international brand. Max Factor and Bctrix gave P St. G immediate access to Europe and Japan. Before the acquisitions, P & G had no cosmetics or fragrance sales in Japan and only $2$ million in Europe. After the acquisition, P & G had annual sales of S237 million in Japan and $340 million in Europe. About 75 per cent of Max Factor's $600 million sales came from outside the United States, whereas all of Betrix's $200 million came from other countries. One analyst estimated that P & G had shortened by three years the time it would have taken to go global with its US brands. Just as the Max Factor and Betrix lines helped P & G, so acquisition by P & G helped those two brands immensely. Betrix, especially, had learned that it took deep pockets to compete in the international cosmetics business. It achieved about 62.5 per cent of its sales in its home market, Germany, with the remainder coming from Switzerland. Spain, Italy and Sweden. Betrix wanted to crack the French market, but had not been successful against powerful L'Oreal, the dominant market leader, and P & G's marketing muscle could not help Betrix to force its way into the French market. Betrix's main brands were the mid-priced Ellen Betrix women's skin-care products and cosmetics and Henry M. Betrix men's toiletries. Its Eurocos Cosmetic subsidiary sold upmarket cosmetics under the Hugo Boss and Laura Biagiotti brand names. Step 3 Reviving Max Factor in the US Market P & G felt that it could make Max Factor more competitive in the USA now that it was not under Revlon's umbrella. As it had done with Cover Girl, P & G quickly learned Max Factor's business and plotted strategies to improve its performance. P & G's managers questioned Max Factor's use of actress Jaclyn Smith as a spokesperson. They revamped Max Factor with new products and technological improvements and strengthened the brands promotion and advertising support. Revkm, however, did not stand still after selling Max Factor to P & G. It hired a new management team for its Revlon brand, cut its manufacturing costs and introduced a $200 million advertising barrage that featured a jazzy 'Shake Your Body' message. Both firms realized that they had to find ways to attract younger women, including teenagers, without alienating older customers. Mass-market sales, such as sales through drug stores and discount shops, grew only 2 per cent in 1991, compared with 6 per cent in 1990. Changing consumer demographics and shopping habits seemed to account for this slowdown. Ageing
Case 5; Procter & Gamble.
baby boomers had decided to invest in skin-care products and were buying fewer cosmetics like mascara, nail polish and lipstick. These changes meant that attracting younger women had become even more important if the cosmetics companies were to revive sales growth. One college student suggested that she could understand the companies' interest in younger consumers. She felt that younger women often wanted to look older and might even use more cosmetics than they needed. 'Putting on make-up', she added, 'is a big part of growing up.' An industry consultant noted that 'Younger women are constantly changing and reapplying their nail polish, something older women don't do,' Yet the companies faced problems in attracting younger customers. First, there were fewer younger women than baby boomers. Second, all cosmetics manufacturers were fighting for shelf space and the attention of younger buyers. One analyst noted: 'There are simply too many manufacturers and too many products chasing too few customers. Competition was intense.' The analyst continued: 'Even at the prestige end of the mass market, L'Oreal had dropped its emphasis on quality and had begun emphasizing having fun to lure more young customers.' Additional competition was coming from department store product lines, speciality shops, direct marketers such as Avon and home shopping networks. As a result, P & G's cosmetics sales remained flat in 1991 at $722 million; and its market share slipped slightly to 34 per cent, down from 34.4 per cent in 1990. Revlou's share increased to 22.5 per cent, up from 2(1.4 per cent in 1990, Even with the slowdown, however, P & G remained the USA's largest seller of cosmetics sold through drug and mass merchandise stores, P & G admitted that it was still learning the cosmetics business. It faced distribution problems, being slow to fill orders and slow to deliver promised new products. In addition, the company had consolidated its cosmetics sales force. Its salespeople now sold al! three lines - Cover Girl, Clarion and Max Factor. Some distributors argued that P & G was expecting too much from a single salesperson. The product lines were simply too wide to expect one person to know much about all the products. P & G countered that the new system would reduce the number of salespeople with whom retailers had to deal. Step 4 Going Global Most recently, P & G has decided to overhaul the Max Factor line and launch its first simultaneous worldwide product introduction. The company introduced the new Max Factor line during the spring of .1993. The new products feature more elegant styling and more colours. The initial range was eye shadows, blushes and lipsticks. In 1994 it will introduce foundations, face powders and mascaras. All of these products will be the same, no matter where in the world P & G sells them. Previously, P & G had used different products and strategies in different markets, often using local manufacturers. In Japan, for example, the Max Factor line had consisted primarily of skin-care products sold at high prices in department stores. Max Factor had accounted for 28 per cent of Revlon's Japanese sales of 8507 million in 1990. However, the brand had not kept up with changing Japanese lifestyles and tastes, and it was steadily losing market share. Kao Corporation and Shiseido Company were emerging as powerful competitors in the Japanese market. In Europe, P & G sold Max Factor products in chain stores and pharmacies at lower prices. The new line would feature similar styles, colours and images across all international markets. Packages are a deep-blue colour with gold trim. The products, come in a variety of colours to meet the needs of women with
225
226 • Chapter 5 Tlie Global Marketplace differing skin tones. P & G has also revised its in-storc displays. To support such changes, it will increase prices to between 8 and 10 per cent above previous Max Factor prices. P & G is following the successful strategies of Estee Lander's Glinique and Chanel, which have both been successful with standardized global marketing. Consumers around the globe recognize Clinique's blue-green packaging and Chanel's classic black compacts. P & G hopes that the standardized strategy will allow it to save money by unifying and consolidating many of its marketing efforts. Step 5 Watching the Com petition Despite Artzt's perpetual optimism, however, P & G knows it is making a bold move. No other company has tried to develop a worldwide, massmarket cosmetics brand. The company has already learned from its experiences in the US market that the cosmetics business is complicated. P & G also knows that Kevlon will be right behind with its own global strategy. Revlori already receives between 30 and 35 per cent of its revenue from 126 foreign countries and P & G expects that Revlon will try to take more of its regional brands global. P & G also knows dial it must watch its home market. Noting all the attention being paid to younger women, Maybelline is now focusing on ageing baby boomers. It plans to introduce a new line called Maybelline Revitalizing, which targets women of 35 and older. Maybelline claims that these products will help mature women look younger and it plans to sell the products through mass-market outlets. To stay ahead of the competitors in cosmetics, P & G will have to find some new marketing wrinkles.
QUESTIONS 1.
2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
Who are Procter & Gamble's competitors, from an industry point of view and from a market point of view? Are there strategic groups in the industry? Why are these questions important for P & G? What trends are shaping competitors' objectives in the cosmetics industry? Based on information in the case, identify competitive positions have the various cosmetics competitors pursued to gain competitive advantage? What actions should P & G take in order to expand the total cosmetics market and to protect and expand its market share? What competitive strategies would you recommend for P & G's competitors?
SOURCES: Randall Smith, Kathleen Deveny and Aleoia Svvasy. 'Sale of Re«I0n beauty Hue is conhidered by Perelraan'. Wall .S'trttl Journal (1 March 1991), p. B4; Aleoia Swasy, 'Cover Girl is growing up and moving out as its new parent, I3 & G, takes charge'. Wall Street Journal (28 March 1991), p. B1; Pat Sloan and Jennifer Lawrence, 'What P & G plans for cosmetics', Advertising Age (15 April 1991), pp. 3, 46; Zaohary Schiller and Larry Light, 'Procter & (iambic is following its nose', liusiness Week (22 April 1991), p. 28; Valerie Rcitman and Jeffrey A. TYacheflberg, 'Rattle to make up the younger woman pils Revlon against its new rival, P & G', HWi Street Jowwurf (10 July 1992); Valerie Reitman, 'P&G planning a fresh lace for Max Factor', Wall Street Journal (29 December 1992), p. HI; Marilyn Much, 'Cosmetic war £ets u^ly as front moves abroad', Investor's liusiness Daily (14 January 1993), p. 4; and Gabriella Stem, 'Aging boomers arc new target for Maybelline', Wall .Street Journal (13 April 1993), p. HI.
Consumer Buyer Behaviour CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to; •
Define the consumer market and construct a simple model of consumer buying behaviour. • Tell how culture, subculture and social class influence consumer buying behaviour. • Describe how consumers' personal characteristics and primary psychological factors affect their buying decisions. • Discuss how consumer decision making varies with the type of buying decision. • Explain the stages of the buyer decision and adoption processes.
Preview Case Sheba: The Pet's St Valentines Day Pedro Quclhas Brito, Universidade do Porto, Portugal PET FOOD SALES IN PORTUGAL rose from Eso480 million in 1988 to more than EseT.OOO million in 1996. The average growth of 22 per cent a year attracted more than 60 new brands from both local and multinational companies. The market leader, EFFEM-Portugal, with brands like Sheba, Wbiskas and Pedigree Pal, had half of the pet food market and played an important role in the expansion of the market, but the going was not easy for all the brands. EFFEM's success came from understanding the behaviour of both pets and their owners. Cats are resolved animals. Cats eat what thev like and 227
228 • Chapter 6 Consumer Buyer Behaviour leave what they dislike. A cat is selective and sensitive regarding his or her nutritional needs and taste. If given food it dislikes, a cat seeks an alternative. Dogs are different. A hungry dog will eat almost anything, and eats it quicldy. For cat food the main concern is to give pleasure and to provide variety. For dogs it is volume and ease of consumption. Launched in 1988, Sheba is EFFEM's super-premium brand for cats. With its exceptional quality and its high priee, it aims to delight the most discerning cats and is particularly appropriate for special occasions. But Sheba was in trouble. After initial advertising and sales promotional support during its launch, it had been left to fend for itself in the increasingly competitive pet food market. By 1995 Sheba's market position and even its commercial existence was threatened by the absence of marketing support and the entrance of new competitors into its market niche. Only 9 per cent of the total market had ever bought a can of Sheba at least once. Sheba's low market share of just 2 per cent justified little promotional expenditure, but tor Sheba it was fight back or die. EFFEM's answer was a two-stage point of sale promotion, with each stage costing as little as a 30-second prime-time TV commercial. Stage one was during the run-up to Christmas 1995. In-store demonstrators approached consumers and asked them if they owned a cat. If customers answered 'yes', they were offered a greetings card and a 100 g can of Sheba. In this way both owners and pets received a gift- This sampling raised customers' brand awareness and knowledge of Sheba. Besides giving information, the card encouraged the pet's owners to show their love for their eat by giving it Sheba because 'it deserves it'. The card and its message were designed to generate favourable feelings. After all, it was Christmas time and this 'Santa Claws' gave away 12,000 cans of very special Sheba. The second stage of the campaign repeated the Christmas promotion, but with St Valentine's Day as the theme. The Valentine's cart) showed two cats, probably lovers, with the messages: 'Because today is a special day, Sheba has a gift for your cat' and 'Let it know how you love [your cat]'. During the campaign 11,900 cans were given to customers at the point of sale. The Valentine's card also doubled as a Cash-back coupon with a face value of EsclOO. The refund and the emotional appeal of the message helped customers to confirm their preference for Sheba while showing their love for their cat. The promotions reversed Sheba's sales decline. The impact on brand awareness/knowledge and repeat purchase was evident and the percentage of consumers who had ever tried Sheba increased to 22 per cent.
QUESTIONS 1. Is Sheba based on the tastes of eats or their owners? 2. Do consumers behave more like cats or dogs in their consumption behaviour? 3. Does the consumer awareness and knowledge achieved account for the success of the Sheba campaign? If not, what does account for the success? 4. 5. 6.
Is the campaign likely to succeed if adopted in other European countries? Given that Sheba's safes promotion campaign was so much more successful than conventional advertising, why is it not used more often? What sales promotions would you suggest to maintain the momentum of the Christmas and St Valentine's Day success?
Introduction
229
Introduction EFFEM's success with Sheba shows how consumer buying behaviour has many unexpected dimensions. Since the human mind contains as many interacting neurones as there are leaves in the Amazon jungle, it is not surprising that buying behaviour is never simple. Complicated it is, but understanding buyer behaviour is central to marketing management. Just as marketing ends with consumption, so marketing management muse begin with understanding customers. This chapter explores the dynamics of consumer behaviour and the consumer market. Consumer buying behaviour- refers to the buying behaviour of final consumers - individuals and households that buy goods and services for personal consumption. All of these final consumers combined make up the consumer market. The world consumer market consists of about 5.5 billion people, but the billion people living in North America, western Europe and Japan make up 70 per cent of the world's spending power.1 Even within these wealthy consumer markets, consumers vary tremendously in age, income, education level and tastes. They also buy an incredible variety of goods and services. How these diverse consumers make their choices among various products embraces a fascinating array of factors.
Models of Consumer Behaviour In earlier times, marketers could understand consumers well through the daily experience of selling to them. But as firms and markets have grown in size, many marketing decision makers have lost direct contact with their customers and must now turn to consumer research. They spend more money than ever to study consumers, trying to learn more about consumer behaviour. Who buys? How do they buy? When do they buy? Where do they buy? Why do they buy? The central question for marketers is; how do consumers respond to various marketing stimuli that the company might use? The company that really understands how consumers will respond to different product features, prices and advertising appeals has a great advantage over its competitors. Therefore, companies and academies have researched heavily the relationship between marketing stimuli and consumer response. Their starting point is the stimulus response model of buyer behaviour shown in Figure 6.1. This shows that marketing and other stimuli enter the consumer's 'black box1 and produce certain responses. Marketers must figure out what is in the buyer's black box.2 Marketing stimuli consist of the four Ps: product, price, place and promotion. Other stimuli include significant forces and events in the buyer's environment; economic, technological, political and cultural. All these stimuli enter the buyer's black box, where they are turned into a set of observable buyer responses (shown on the right-hand side of Figure 6.1): product choice, brand choice, dealer choice, purchase timing and purchase amount. The marketer wants to understand how the stimuli are changed into responses inside the consumer's black box, which has two parts. First, the buyer's characteristics influence how he or she perceives and reacts to the stimuli. Second, the buyer's decision process itself affects the buyer's behaviour. This chapter first looks at buyer characteristics as they affect buying behaviour, and then examines the buyer decision process. We will never know what exactly is in
consumer buying behaviour Tlie buying behaviour of final consumers individuals and households 'who buy goods and services for personal consumption. eon sumo r market All the individuals and households who buy or acquire gvods and services fi ir personal consumption.
230 • Chapter 6 Consumer Buyer Behaviour
Figure 6.1
Model of buyer behaviour
the black box or be able perfectly to predict consumer behaviour, but the models can help us imderstand consumers, help us to ask the right questions, and teach us how to influence them.-1
Characteristics Affecting Consumer Behaviour Consumer purchases are influenced strongly by cultural, social, personal and psychological characteristics, as shown in Figure 6.2. For the most part, marketers cannot control such factors, but they must take them into account. We illustrate these characteristics for the ease of a hypothetical customer, Anna Flores. Anna is a married graduate who works as a brand manager in a leading consumer packaged-goods company. She wants to buy a camera to take on holiday. Many characteristics in her background will affect the way she evaluates cameras and chooses a brand.
Cultural Factors Cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence on consumer behaviour. The marketer needs to understand the role played by the buyer's culture, subculture and social class.
• Culture culture The set of basic values, perceptions, wants and behaviours learned by a member of society from family and otlter important institutions.
Culture is the most basic cause of a person's wants and behaviour. Human behaviour is largely learned. Growing up in a society, a child learns basic values, perceptions, wants and behaviours from the family and other important institutions. Like most wcsceni people, in her childhood Anna observed and learned values about achievement and success, activity and involvement, efficiency and practicality, progress, material comfort, individualism, freedom, humanitananism, youthfulness, and] fitness and health. Sometimes we take these values for granted, but they are nol cultural universals.
Characteristics Affecting Consumer Behaviour • 231
Figure 6.2
Factors influencing behaviour
A trade delegation trying to market in Taiwan found this out the hard way. Seeking more foreign trade, they arrived in Taiwan bearing gifts of green baseball caps. It turned out that the trip was scheduled a month before Taiwan elections, and that green was the colour of the political opposition party. Worse yet, the visitors learned after the fact Chat according to Taiwan culture, a man wears green to signify that his wife has been unfaithful. The head of the community delegation later noted: T don't know whatever happened to those green hats, but the trip gave us an understanding of the extreme differences in our cultures.'4 Marketers are always trying to spot cultural shifts in order to imagine new products that might be wanted. For example, the cultural shift towards greater concern about health and fitness has created a huge industry for exercise equipment and clothing, lower-calorie and more natural foods, and health and fitness services. This allowed Snapple to change the face of the US soft-drinks market with its 'new age' iced teas and fruit-flavoured drinks. The shift towards informality has resulted in more demand for casual clothing, simpler home furnishings and lighter entertainment. And the increased desire for leisure time has resulted in more demand for convenience products and services, such as microwave ovens, fast food and direct line financial services such as First Direct and Direct Line. Concern for the environment is influencing consumer behaviour both through legislation and through demand for less wasteful goods (see Marketing Highlights.!).5
• Subculture Each culture contains smaller subcultures or groups of people with shared value systems based on common life experiences and situations. Subcultures include nationalities, religions, racial groups and geographic regions. Many subcultures make up important market segments and marketers often design products and marketing programmes tailored to their needs,' The huge US market of 260 million people has Hispanic (approaching 40 million) and black (over 30 million) subcultures that are bigger than most national markets. In all developed economies the greying population is growing rapidly. Marketers often have a poor understanding of these over-55s who will be a huge market force in the next millennium.7 Like all other
subculture A group ofpeople with shared value systems based on common life experiences and situations.
232 • Chapter 6 Consumer Buyer Behaviour
Packaging Ordinance: Making: the Polluter Pay
Marketing Highlight 6.1
The principle of 'the polluter pays' once seemed far-fetched, a pipe dream of radical environmentalists. But as the rest of the world watches, the notion that sellers should be responsible for the environmental costs of their products is being put to the test in Germany. The Packaging Ordinance (Verpackungsordnung) makes private Industry responsible for the collecting, sorting and ultimate recycling of packaging waste. The legislation deals separately with three different kinds of packaging: •
primary packaging: the container that holds the product, like a perfume bottle.
•
secondary packaging: outer material whose main function is point-oi'-purchase display and protection during shipping, like the box around the perfume bottle;
•
transport packaging: the carton or crate used to ship the perfume to stores.
The ordinance decreed that alt three types of packaging must be taken back by retailers and returned to manufacturers - a daunting prospect for both parties. However, it allowed that tf the industry could come up with an alternative, then retailers would not have to take back the first and by far the largest category of waste, primary sales packaging. The industry's solution was the Dual System (DSD), a non-profit company set up by German businesses that collects waste directly from consumers in addition to the country's municipal collection systems, DSD is funded by licensing fees for the now widely used green dot; a green arrow emblem indicating that a package is collectible by DSD. Now, rather than tossing their packaging out with the municipal rubbish, for which they must pay a fee, consumers can take it to a nearby yeliow DSD bin to be collected for free. Under the DSD system, although they must still collect secondary and transport packaging,
stores are no longer required to take back huge mounds of primary sales packaging. However, there's a catch: to be eligible as DSD rubbish, a sales package must have the green dot. So, not surprisingly, retailers are reluctant to carry products without the green dot. Further, there is a growing preference among German consumers for recyclable packaging materials, and for less packaging in general. Thus, the Packaging Ordinance wiJl strongly affect how companies package their products for the German market. The ordinance puts the 'polluter pays' principle to work by creating incentives rather than through direct regulation. Unlike other £11 countries, Germany has no ban on specific packaging materials. Instead, green dot licence prices are based, in part, on the difficulty {if recycling a particular material. This sets market mechanisms in motion. If a given packaging material is costly to recycle, the price of using it will rise and companies will switch to something else. Thus, the ordinance is stimulating companies to find imaginative ways to market goods with less packaging. Golgate, for example, designed a toothpaste tube that stands on its head on store shelves without a box. Hewlett-Packard redesigned the chassis for its workstations and personal computers, reducing transport packaging by 30 per cent. The major problem with the landmark German recycling programme is the lack of a market for recycled material. Notes one packaging expert: 'There seems to he widespread belief in the trash fairy, who comes overnight and turns garbage into gold for free .. [But] when you're talking trash, it's difficult to believe that anyone will pay for it.' In fact, it's no secret that much of the packaging collected in DSD bins is not being recycled, but rather is piling up in warehouses or being exported. When German plastics turned up in French dumps and incinerators, it caused ,1 Europe-wide scandal. Still, the ordinance serves as a wake-up call to both businesses and consumers, in Germany and around the world. It says, 'Hey folks, we've got a problem, and something must be done about it.'
Characteristics Affecting Consumer Behaviour • 233
And despite its flaws, the ordinance does seem to be moving the country rapidly towards its goal of waste reduction. For example, during the first three years under the new system, total household waste production fell by more than 10 per cent, while recycling quantities increased by 90 per cent. Germany collects, sorts and recycles 60 per cent of its post-consumer plastic-packaging waste, well ahead of the 35 per cent target. Producers and retailers are now working together to help solve environmental problems. France and Austria have passed similar legislation, and France has begun using the green dot, although with a different collection system. In Germany, new ordinances are on the horizon,
Table 6.1
including ones for mandating producer take-back of cars and electronic equipment. The EU is now working on a directive that would set minimum standards for recycling in all of its member states, 'it may take another year or two, but the train is running,' assures one German ministry official. 'The idea of product responsibility is spreading around the world.'
SOURCE: Adapted from Marilyn Stern, 'Is this the ultimate in recycling?1 Across ihcBoard (May 199,1), pp. 28-31. See also Peter Sibbald, 'Manufacturing for reuse,' Fortune, (6 February 1995), pp. 102-12; 'Plastics waste: Germany beats recycling targets,' Chemical Week (5 June 1996), p. 22.
UK socioeeonomie classification scheme
CLASS NAME
SOCIAL STATUS
OCCUPATION OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD
% OF POPULATION
A
Upper middle
Higher managerial, administrative or professional
B
3
Middle
Intermediate managerial, administrative or
Cl
Lower middle
G2 D E
Skilled working Working Those at lowest levels
professional Supervisors or clerical, junior managerial, administrative or professional Skilled manual workers Semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers State pensioners or widows, casual or lower-grade workers of subsistence
14 27 25 19 12
SOURCE; Office of Population Censuses and Surveys.
people, Anna Florcs' buying behaviour will be influenced by her subculture identification. It will affect her food preferences, clothing choices, recreation activities and career goals. Subcultures attach different meanings to pieture taking and this could affect both Anna's interest in cameras and the brand she buys.
• Social Class Almost every society has some form of social class structure. Social classes are society's relatively permanent and ordered divisions whose members share similar values, interests and behaviours. The British scale with six social classes is widely used, although all big countries have their own system (see Table 6.1). In these
social classes Relatively permanent and ordered divisions in a society wliose members share similar values, interests and behaviours.
234 • Chapter 6 Consumer Buyer Behaviour
Using Reference Groups
to Sell: Home-Party and Office-Parlv Selling
Marketing
Highlight u^ o
overcome this problem, most party-plan sellers have followed their customers into the workplace with office-party selling. For example. Avon now trains its 400,000 salespeople to sell through office parties during coffee and lunch breaks and after hours. The company once sold only door to door, but currently picks up a quarter of its sales from buyers at businesses. The wellknown home Tupperwaru party has also invaded the office, as Tupperware 'rushhour parties' held at the end of the workday in offices. At these parties, office workers meet in comfortable, familiar surroundings, look through Tupperware catalogues, watch product demonstrations arid discuss Tupperware products with their friends and associates. Tupperwarc's 85,000 sales representatives now make about 20 per cent of their sales outside the home. Home-party and office-party selling is now being used to market everything from cosmetics, kitchcnware ;ind lingerie to exercise instruction and hand-made suits. Such selling requires a sharp understanding of reference groups and how people influence each other in the buying process.
6.2
Many companies capitalize on reference-group influence to sell their products. Home-party and office-party selling involves throwing sales parties in homes or workplaces and inviting friends and neighbours or co-workers to see products demonstrated. Companies such as Mary Kay Cosmetics, Avon and Tupporware are masters at this form of selling. Mary Kay Cosmetics provides a good example of home-party selling. A Mary Kay beauty consultant {of which there are 170,000) asks different women to host small beauty shows in their homes. Each hostess invites her friends and neighbours for a few hours of refreshments and informal socializing. Within this congenial atmosphere, the Mary Kay representative gives a twohour beauty plan and free make-up lessons to the guests, hoping that many of them will buy some of tire demonstrated cosmetics. The hostess receives a commission on sales plus a discount on personal purchases. Usually, about 60 per cent of the guests buy something, partly because of the influence of the hostess and the other women SOURCES: See Shannon Thumiaii, 'Mary I:iy still in the attending the party. pink', Advertising Age (4 January 1988), p. 32; Len In recent years, changing demographics have adversely affected home-party selling. Increasingly, • Strazewski, 'Hipperware locks in a new strategy', .AiJoeitfsfrig Age (8 Febniary 1988), p. 30; ICate Ballen, 'Get ready for women are working, which leaves fewer women shopping at work', Fortune (15 February 1988), pp. 95-8; with the time for shopping and fewer women at Vie Sussman, '1 was the only virgin at the party', Sales and Marketing Management (September ] 989), pp. 64-72. home to host or attend home sales parties. To
social class is not determined by a single factor, such as income, but is measured as a combination of occupation, income, education, wealth and other variables. Not only do class systems differ in various parts of the world: the relative sizes of the classes vary with the relative prosperity of countries. The 'diamond'-shaped classification (few people at the top and bottom with most in the middle) in Table 6.1 is typical of developed countries, although the Japanese and Scandinavian scales are flatter. In less developed countries, such as in Latin America and Africa, the structure is 'pyramid' shaped with a concentration of poor people at the base. As countries develop, their class structure moves towards the diamond shape, although there is evidence that the gap between the richest and poorest in the English-speaking countries is now widening.
Characteristics Affecting Consumer Behaviour • 2,15 Some class systems have a greater influence on buying behaviour than others. In most western countries 'lower' classes may exhibit upward mobility, showing buying behaviour similar to that of the 'upper' classes. But in other cultures, where a caste system gives people a distinctive role, buying behaviour is more firmly linked to social class. Upper classes in almost all societies are often more similar to each other than they are to the rest of their own society. When selecting products and services, including food, clothing, household items and personalcare products, they make choices that are less culture-bound than those of the lower classes. Generally, the lower social classes are more culture-bound, although young people of all classes are less so.N Anna Plores' social class may affect her camera-buying decision. If she comes from a higher social class background, her family probably owned an expensive camera and she might have dabbled in photography.
Sodal Factors A consumer's behaviour is also influenced by social factors, such as the consumer's small groups, family, and social roles and status. Because these social factors can strongly affect consumer responses, companies must take diem into account when designing their marketing strategies.
• Groups Groups influence a person's behaviour. Groups that have a direct influence and to which a person belongs are called membership groups. Some are primary groups with whom there is regular but informal interaction - such as family, friends, neighbours and fellow workers. Some are secondaiy groups, which are more formal and have less regular interaction. These include organizations like religious groups, professional associations and trade unions. Reference groups are groups that serve as direct (face-to-face) or indirect points of comparison or reference in forming a person's attitudes or behaviour. Reference groups to which they do not belong often influence people. For example, an aspirational group is one to which the individual wishes to belong, as when a teenage football player hopes to play some day for Manchester United. He identifies with them, although there is no face-to-face contact between him and the team. Marketers try to identify the reference groups of their target markets. Reference groups influence a person in at least three ways. They expose the person to new behaviours and lifestyles. They influence the person's attitudes and self-concept because he or she wants to 'fit in'. They also create pressures to conform that may affect the person's product and brand choices (see Marketing Highlight 6.2). The importance of group influence varies across products and brands, but it tends to be strongest for conspicuous purchases.9 A product or brand can be conspicuous for one of two reasons. First, it may be noticeable because the buyer is one of few people who owns it-luxuries, such as a vintage Wurlitzer juke box or a Rolex, are more conspicuous than necessities because fewer people own the luxuries. Second, a product such as Carlsberg ICE beer or Perrier can be conspicuous because the buyer consumes it in public where others can see it. Figure 6.3 shows how group influence might affect product and brand choices for four types of product -publie luxuries, private luxuries, public necessities and private necessities. A person considering the purchase of a public luxury, such as a yacht, will generally be influenced strongly by others. Many people will notice the yacht
membership groups Groups that have a direct influence on a person's behaviour und to ijshich a person belongs. reference groups Groups chat have a direct ffacv-to-faue) or indirect influence on the person's attitudes or behaviour. inspirational group A group co which an individual i&ishes to belong.
236
•
Chapter 6
Consumer Buyer Behaviour
Figure 6.3
Extent of group influence on product and brand choice
because few people own one. If interested, they will notice the brand because the boat is used in public. Thus both the product and the brand will be conspicuous and the opinions of others can strongly influence decisions about whether to own a boat and what brand to buy. At the other extreme, group influences do not much affect decisions about private necessities because other people will notice neither the product nor the brand.
•
Family
Family members can strongly influence buyer behaviour. We can distinguish between two families in the buyer's life. The buyer's parents make up ihefamily of orientation. Parents provide a person with an orientation towards religion, politics and economies, and a sense of personal ambition, self-worth and love. Even if the buyer no longer interacts very much with his or her parents, the latter can still significantly influence the buyer's behaviour. In countries where parents continue to live with their children, their influence can be crucial. The family of procreation - the buyer's spouse and children - have a more direct influence on everyday buying behaviour. This family is the most important consumer buying organization in society and it has been researched extensively. Marketers are interested in the roles and relative influence of the husband, wife and children on the purchase of a large variety of products and services. Husband-wife involvement varies widely by product category and by stage in the buying process. Buying roles change with evolving consumer lifestyles. Almost everywhere in the world, the wife is traditionally the main purchasing agent for the family, especially in the areas of food, household products and clothing. But with over 60 per cent or more women holding jobs outside the home in developed countries and the willingness of some husbands to do more of the family's purchasing, all this is changing. For example, in the United States women now buy about 45 per cent of all cars and men account for about-40 per cent of expenditure on food shopping.1' Such roles vary widely among different countries and social classes. As always, marketers must research specific patterns in their target markets.
Characteristics Affecting Consumer Behaviour • 237
decision -making unit (DMU)
All the individuals who participate in, and influence, the consumer buying-decision process. initiator
In the case of expensive products and services, husbands and wives more often make joint decisions. Anna Flores' husband may play an influencer role in her camera-buying decision. He may have an opinion about her buying a camera and about the kind of camera to buy. At the same time, she will be the primary decider, purchaser and user.11 CONSUMERS' BUYING ROLES. Group members can influence purchases in many ways. For example, men normally choose their own newspaper and women choose their own tights. For other products, however, the decision-making unit is more complicated with people playing one or more roles: t
Initiator. The person who first suggests or thinks of the idea of buying a particular product or service. This could he a parent of friends who would like to see a visual record of Anna's holiday. • Influencer. A person whose view or advice influences the buying decision, perhaps a friend who is a camera enthusiast or a salesperson. • Decider. The person who ultimately makes a buying decision or any part of it - whether to buy, what to buy, how to buy or where to buy. • Buyer. The person who makes an actual purchase. Once the buying decision is made, someone else could make the purchase for the decider. •
User. The person who consumes or uses a product or service. Once bought, other members of her family could use Anna's camera.
Roles arid Status A person helongs to many groups - family, clubs, organizations. The person's position in each group can be defined in terms of both role and status. With her parents, Anna Flores plays the role of daughter; in her family, she plays the role of
The person who fir at suggests or thinks of the idea of buying a particular product or service. influence! A person whose vievss or advice carries some weight in making a final buying decision; they often help define specifications and also provide information for evaluating alternatives. decider The person vaho ultimately makes a buying decision or any part of it - whether to buy, what to buy, how to buy, or inhere to buy. buyer The person who makes an actual purchase. user The person who consumes or uses a
238 • Chapter 6 Consumer Buyer Behaviour
Table 6.2
Family life-cycle stages
Single Married without children Married with children Infant children Young children Adolescent children Divorced with children
role
The activities a person is expected to perform according to the people around him or her,
status
The gerKi'al esteem given to a role by society.
MIDDLE-AGED
OLDER
Single Married without children Married with children Young children Adolescent children Married without dependent children Divorced without children Divorced with children Young children Adolescent children Divorced without dependent children
Older married Older unmarried
wife; in her company, she plays the role of brand manager, A role consists of the activities that people are expected to perform according to the persons around them. Each or'Anna's roles will influence some of her buying behaviour. Each role carries a status reflecting the general esteem given to it by society. People often choose products that show their status in society. For example, the role of brand manager has more status in our society than the role of daughter. As a brand manager, Anna will buy the kind of clothing that reflects her role and status.
Personal Factors A buyer's decisions are also influenced by personal characteristics such as the buyer's age and life-cycle stage, occupation, economic situation, lifestyle, and personality and self-concept.
• Age and Life-Cycle Stage
family life eyclc The stages through which families might pass as they mature over time.
People change the goods and services they buy over their lifetimes. Tastes in food, clothes, furniture and recreation are often age related. Buying is also shaped by the family life cycle - the stages through which families might pass as they mature over time. Table 6.2 lists the stages of the family life cycle. Marketers often define their target markets in terms of life-cycle stage and develop appropriate products and marketing plans for each stage. Psychological life-cycle stages have also been identified. 12 Adults experience certain passages or transformations as they go through life. Thus Anna Florcs may
Characteristics Affecting Consumer Behaviour • 239
move from being a satisfied brand manager and wife to being an unsatisfied person searching for a new way to fulfil herself. In faet, such a ehange may have stimulated her strong interest in photography. The main stimuli to people taking photographs are holidays, ceremonies marking the progression through the life cycle (weddings, graduations and so on) and having children to take photographs of. Marketers must pay attention to the changing buying interests that might be associated with these adult passages.
• Occupation A person's occupation affects the goods and services bought. Blue-collar workers tend to buy more work clothes, whereas white-collar workers buy more suits and ties. Marketers try to identify the occupational groups that have an above-average interest in their products and services. A company can even specialize in making products needed by a given occupational group. Thus computer software companies will design different products for brand managers, accountants, engineers, lawyers and doctors.
• Economic Circumstances A person's economic situation will affect product choice. Anna Flores can consider buying an expensive Olympus autofocus superzoom camera if she has enough disposable income, savings or borrowing power. Marketers of incomesensitive goods closely watch trends in personal income, savings and interest
240 • Chapter 6 Consumer Buyer Behaviour
Table 6.3
Lifestyle dimensions
ACTIVITIES
INTERESTS
OPINIONS
DEMOGRAPHICS
Work Hobbies Social events Vacation Entertainment Club membership Community Shopping Sports
Family Home
Themselves Social issues Politics Business Economics Education Products Future Culture
Age Education Income Occupation Family size Dwelling Geography City size Stage in life cycle
Job
Community Recreation Fashion Food Media Achievements
rates. If economic indicators point to a recession, marketers can take steps to redesign, reposition and reprice their products.
• Lifestyle lifestyle A person's pattern of living a* expressed in his or her activities, interests and opinions. p.syehograpliics The technique of measuring lifestyles and developing lifestyle classifications; it involves measuring the chief AK) dimensions (activities, interests, opinions).
People coming from the same subculture, social class and occupation may have quite different lifestyles. Lifestyle is a person's pattern of living as expressed in his or her activities, interests and opinions. Lifestyle captures something more than the person's social class or personality. It profiles a person's whole pattern of acting and interacting in the world. The technique of measuring lifestyles is known as psychographies. It involves measuring the primary dimensions shown in Table 6.3. The first three are known as the AlO dimensions (activities, interests, opinions). Several research firms have developed lifestyle classifications. The most widely used is the SRI Values and Lifestyles (VALS) typology. The original VALS typology classifies consumers into nine lifestyle groups according to whether they were inner directed (for example, 'experientials'); outer directed ('achievers', 'belongers'); or need driven ('survivors'). Using this VALS classification, a bank found that the businessmen they were targeting consisted mainly of 'achievers' who were strongly competitive individualists. 13 The bank designed highly successful ads showing men taking part in solo sports such as sailing, jogging and water skiing.11 Everyday-Life Research by SINUS GmbH, a German company, identifies 'social milieus' covering France, Germany, Italy and the UK. This study describes the stnieture of society with five social classes and value orientations: • • • • •
Basic orientation: traditional - to preserve. Basic orientation: materialist - to fia
280
•
Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Dcluivimir
Wintel (Not) Inside, Please
Marketing Highlight 7.1
The 'Wintel-twosome', Intel and Microsoft's Windows, are in trouble. In mid-1991, Intel launched its two-year, 8100 million 'Intel Inside' advertising campaign to sell personal computer buyers on the virtues of its microprocessors, the tiny chips that serve as the brains of microcomputers. In 1994 that was followed by an $80 million campaign to persuade consumers and businesses to buy PCs based on its latest Pentium microprocessor. So what, you say? Lots of companies run big consumer ad campaigns. However, although such a campaign might be business as usual for companies like Nestle, Shell and Unilever that market products directly to final consumers, it is anything but usual for Intel. Computer buyers can't purchase a microprocessor chip directly - in fact, most will never even see one. Demand for microprocessors is derived demand -- it ultimately comes from demand for products that conrain microprocessors. Consumers simply buy the computer and take whatever brand of chip the computer manufacturer chose to include as a component. Traditionally, chip companies like Intel market only to the manufacturers that buy chips directly. In contrast, the innovative 'Intel Inside' campaign appeals directly to computer buyers - its customers' customers. If Intel can create brand preference among buyers for its chips, this in turn will make Intel chips more attractive to computer manufacturers. According to Industry observers: 'Intel is treating the (PC) industry merely as a distribution arm, seeing the PC user as its ultimate consumer,' Intel invented the first microprocessor in 1971 and for 20 years has held a near-monopoly, dominating the chip market for desktop computers. Its sales and profits have soared accordingly. In the decade since IBM introduced its first PCs based on Intel's 8088 microprocessor, Intel sales have jumped fivefold to more than $5 billion and its earnings have grown ever) faster. Its popular 286, 386, 486 and Pentium chips power
most of the microcomputers in use today. However, a rush of imitators — Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Chips & Technologies, Cyrix and others • - have begun to crack Intel's monopoly, marketing new and improved clones of Intel chips, Intel has responded fiercely to the eloners, slashing prices, spending heavily to develop new products and advertising to differentiate its products. It has cut prices on its new processors faster than for any new chip in its history. Moreover, Intel invested hugely in R & D to get new products to die market more quickly. The Pentium II microprocessor is a veritable onechip mainframe. The Pentium contains 3 million transistors and will process 100 million instructions per second (MIPS), as compared to only 0.5 million transistors and five MIPS for the 386 chip. New software ensures tb.'it compxiter users need 'Pentium power'. Standard Microsoft Windows 95 and Office 98 are increasingly sluggish without Pentium-like processors, so users are often forced to trade up. Still, the clone makers are likely to continue nipping at Intel's heels, and advertising provides another means by which Intel can differentiate its 'originals' from competitors' imitations. The 'Inrcl Inside' campaign advances on two fronts. First, in its brand-awareness ads, Intel attempts to convince microcomputer buyers that Intel microprocessors really are better. The ads carry the message 'It's amazing what you can do with a Pentium processor'. After spending little on advertising for many years, other hi-tech firms are now spending a small fortune on building brands. It remains to be seen whether the 'Intel Inside' campaign can convince buyers to care about what chip comes in their computers. But as long as microprocessors remain anonymous little lumps hidden inside a user's computer, Intel remains at the mercy of the clone makers. In contrast, if Intel can convince buyers that its chips are superior, it will achieve even more power in the market. The reaction of IBM and Compaq, the leading PC supplier in the United States and Europe, sug-
LEAS
buying to hay airline which such a
Business Markets
gests that Intel may be being-too successful. For years Intel and Compaq collaborated in bringing Intel microprocessor-based PCs to markets, but the two firms are hardly on speaking terms now, Eckhard Pfeffer, Compaq president and chief executive, has accused Intel of undermining Compaq's marketing effort. 'What upsets us generally is that a component supplier should try to influence the end user. The end user market is not their business. They are interfering,' says Andreas Earth, head of Compaq's European operations. Not surprisingly, Compaq's latest PCs for the consumer market will have an AMD microprocessor inside. IBM is also annoyed about the rapid obsolescence of the Intel products it buys. 'Customers are telling us to slow down the pace of technology,' says IBM's Chairman, Lou Gerstner. 'How powerful a computer do you really need on a desk?' To challenge Intel's dominance, IBM is linking with Nexgen and Cyrix to give credibility to its clones. The world is also turning against Bill Gates' Microsoft, the other half of the increasingly hated 'Wintel twosome'. In the USA and Europe the firm's anti-competitive behaviour is under scrutiny, particularly Microsoft's bundling of its Web
browser with its dominant Windows operating system. Will Intel and Microsoft successfully assure their dominance of the microprocessor and software markets, or have they forgotten the golden rule: the customer is always right? Will their dominance melt like that of the earlier hi-tech darling: IBM?
SOURCES: Quotes from Kate Bertram!, 'Advertising a chip you'll never see', HuKiness Marketing (February 1992), p. 19; and Richard Brandt, 'Intel: way out in front, hut the footsteps arc getting larger', Business Week (29 April 1991), pp. 88-9. See also Robert D. I lot', 'Inside Intel', Justness Week (1 June 1992), pp. 86-94; Bertrand, 'Chip wars'. Business Marketing (February 1992), pp. 16-18; Alan Deutsohman,'If they're gaining on you, innovate'. Fortune (2 November 1992), pp. 56-61; Richard Brandt, 'Intel: what a tease - and what a strategy1, Business Week (22 February 1993), p. 40; Louise Kehoe and Alan Cane, 'Chips down for PC partner', Ffiioncfcrf 'limes (20 September 1994), p. 21; Louise Kehoe and (Jeoff Wheelwright, 'Breaking windows', Firutnmal Times (4 October 1'>94), p. 16; 'High-tech brands: so.ip powder, with added logic'. The Kctinamist (6 December 1997); 'Beleaguered Microsoft: why Bill Gates should worry', The Economist (20 December 1997); 'Persecuting BUI', The Economist (20 December 1997); Louise Kehoe, 'Hard ease for software', Financial Times (22 January 19S8), p. 27.
goods directly from Procter & Gamble, and universities buy mainframe computers directly from IBM. Bull and so on. RECIPROCITY. Business buyers often practise reciprocity, selecting suppliers that also buy from them. For example, a paper company might buy needed chemicals from a chemical company that in turn buys the company's paper. Shaken by European Airbus's success in the airliner market, market leader Boeing has started a worldwide review of its purchasing policies. They intend to mateh aircraft parts contracts to countries that buy Boeings. With an apparent eye on the Canadian government's purchase of search-and-rescue helicopters and Canadian Airlines InternationaS's 737 replacements, Boeing warned: 'ur Canadian business placement must understandably be market based, as it is elsewhere,17 LEASING. Business buyers are increasingly leasing equipment instead of buying it outright. Everything from printing presses to power plants, business jets to hay balers, and office copiers to off-shore drilling rigs. The biggest buyer of airliners in the world is not a large airline but GPA, a company based in Ireland which buys airliners to resell or lease. The lessee can gain a number of advantages, such as having more available capital, getting the seller's latest products, receiving
281
282 • Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour
Figure 7.2
A model of business buyer behaviour
better servicing and gaining some tax advantages. The lessor often ends up with a larger net income and the chance to sell to customers that might not have heen ahle to afford outright purchase.
A Model of Business Buyer Behaviour At the most basic level, marketers want to know how business buyers will respond to various marketing stimuli. Figure 7,2 shows a model of business buyer behaviour. In tills model, marketing and other stimuli affect the buying organization and produce certain buyer responses. As with consumer buying, the marketing stimuli for business buying consist of the four Ps: product, price, place arid promotion. Other stimuli include influential forces in the environment: economic, technological, political, eultural and competitive. These stimuli enter the organization and arc turned into buyer responses: product or service choice; supplier choice; order quantities; and delivery, service and payment terms. In order to design good marketing-mix strategics, the marketer must understand what happens within the organization to turn stimuli into purchase responses. Within the organization, buying activity consists of two main parts: the buying centre, made up of all the people involved in the buying decision, and the buying decision process. Figure 7.2 shows that the buying centre and the buying decision process are influenced by internal organizational, interpersonal and individual factors as well as bv external environmental factors.
Business Buyer Behaviour The model in Figure 7.2 suggests four questions about business buyer behaviour: What buying decisions do business buyers make? Who participates in the buying process? What are the strongest influences on buyers? How do business buyers make their buying decisions?
Business Buyer Bcliaviour • 283
Figure 7.3
Three types of business buying situation
What Buying Decisions Do Business Buyers Make? *' CJ » The business buyer faces a whole set of decisions in making a purchase. The number of decisions depends on the type of buying situation.
• Main Types of Buying Situation There are three main types of buying situation.8 At one extreme is the straight rebuy, which is a fairly routine decision. At die other extreme is the new Cask, which may call for thorough research. In the middle is the modified rebuy, which requires some research, (For examples, see Figure 7.3.) STRAIGHT REBUY. In a straight rebuy, the buyer reorders something without any modifications. It is usually handled on a routine basis by the purchasing department. Based on past buying satisfaction, the buyer simply chooses from the various suppliers on its list. 'In' suppliers try to maintain product and service quality. They often propose automatic reordering systems so that the purchase agent will save reordering time. The 'out' suppliers try to offer something new or exploit dissatisfaction so that the buyer will consider them, 'Out' suppliers try to get their foot in the door with a small order and then enlarge their purchase share over time. MODIFIED REBUY. In a modified rebuy, the buyer wants to modify product specifications, prices, terms or suppliers. The modified rebuy usually involves more decision participants than the straight rebuy. The 'in' suppliers may become nervous and feel pressured to put their best foot forward to protect an account. 'Out' suppliers may see the modified rebuy situation as an opportunity to make a better otter and gain new business. NEW TASK, A company buying a product or service for the first time faces a new task situation. In such cases, the greater the cost or risk, the larger will be the number of decision participants and the greater their efforts to collect information. The new-task situation is the marketer's greatest opportunity and challenge.
straight rebuy A business buying situation in which the buyer routinely reorders something without any modifications. modified rebuy A business buying situation in which the buyer wants co modify product specifications, prices, terms or suppliers. new task A business buying situation in which the buyer purchases a product or service for the first time.
284 • Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour The marketer not only tries to reach as many key buying influences as possible, but also provides help and information.
• Specific Buying Decisions The buyer makes the fewest decisions in the straight rebuy and the most in the new-task decision. In the new-task situation, the buyer must decide on product specifications, suppliers, priee limits, payment terms, order quantities, delivery times and service terms. The order of these decisions varies with each situation and different decision participants influence each choice.
• Systems Buying and Selling systems buying Buying a packaged solution to a problem and without all the separate decisions involved.
buying centre All the individuals and units that participate in the business buy ingdecision process. users Members of the organization who •will use the product or service; users often initiate the buying proposal and help define product specifications.
Many business buyers prefer to buy a packaged solution to a problem from a single seller. Called systems buying, this practice began with government buying of powerful weapons and communication systems. Instead of buying and putting all the components together, the government asked for bids from suppliers that would supply the components and assemble the paekage or system. Hellers have increasingly recognized that buyers like this method and have adopted systems selling as a marketing tool,'Systems selling is a two-step process. First, the supplier sells a group of interlocking products: for example, the supplier sells not only glue, but also applicators and dryers. Second, the supplier sells a system of production, inventory control, distribution and other services to meet the buyer's need for a smooth-running operation. Systems selling is a key business marketing strategy for winning and holding accounts. The contract often goes to the firm that provides the most complete system meeting the customer's needs. Consider the following: The Indonesian government requested bids to build a cement factory' near Jakarta. An American firm's proposal included choosing the site, designing the cement factory, hiring the construction crews, assembling the materials and equipment and turning the finished factory over to the Indonesian government. A Japanese firm's proposal included all of these services, plus hiring and training workers to run the factory, exporting the cement through their trading companies and using the cement to build some needed roads and new office buildings in Jakarta. Although the Japanese firm's proposal cost more, it won the contract. Clearly the Japanese viewed the problem not as one of just building a cement factory (the narrow view of systems selling) but of running it in a way that would contribute to the country's economy. They took the broadest view of the customers' needs. This is true systems selling.
Who Participates in the Business Buying Process? Who buys the goods and services needed by business oganizations? The decisionmaking unit of a buying organization is called its buying centre, defined as all the individuals and units that participate in the business decision-making process.10 The buying centre includes all members of the organization who play any of five roles in the purchase decision process.11 1.
Users. Members of the organization who will use the product or sendee. In many cases, users initiate the buying proposal and help define product specifications.
Business Buyer Behaviour • 28S
2. Iirfluencers. People who affect the buying decision. They often help define specifications arid also provide information for evaluating alternatives. Technical personnel are particularly Important influencers. 3. Buyers. People with formal authority to select the supplier and arrange terms of purchase. Buyers may help shape product specifications, but they play their most important role in selecting vendors and in negotiating. In more complex purchases, buyers might include high-level officers participating in the negotiations. 4. Deciders. People who have formal or informal power to select or approve the final suppliers. In routine buying, the buyers are often the deciders or at least the approvers. 5. Gatekeepers. People who control the flow of information to others. For example, purchasing agents often have authority to prevent salespersons from seeing users or deciders. Other gatekeepers include technical personnel and even personal secretaries. The buying centre is not a fixed and formally identified unit within the buying organization. It is a set of buying roles assumed by different people for different purchases. Within the organization, the size and make-up of the buying centre will vary for different products and for different buying situations. For some routine purchases, one person - say, a purchasing agent - may assume all the buying centre roles and serve as the only person involved in the buying decision. For more complex purchases, the buying centre may include 20 or 30 people from different levels and departments in the organization. One study of business buying showed that the typical business equipment purchase involved seven people from three management levels representing four different departments.
influencers l-'eople in an organizations buying centre Wio affect the buying decision; they often help define specifications and also provide information for evaluating alternatives buyers People in an organization's buying centre with formal authority to select the supplier and arrange terms of purchase. deciders People in the organization's buying centre tcfeo have formal or informal powers to select or approve the final sHp gatekeepers People in the organization's buying centre wh(^ control the flow of information to others.
286 • Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Bchavinur Thc buying-centre concept presents a significant marketing challenge. The business marketer must learn who participates in the decision, each participant's relative influence and what evaluation criteria each decision participant uses. Consider the following example: Baxter sells disposable surgical gowns to hospitals. It tries to identify die hospital personnel involved in this buying decision. They turn out to be the purchasing manager, the operating room administrator and thcs surgeons. Baeh participant plays a different role. The vice-president of purchasing analyzes whether the hospital should buy disposable gowns or reusable gowns. If analysis favours disposable gowns, then the operating room administrator compares competing products and prices and makes a choice. This administrator considers the gown's absorbency, antiseptic quality, design and cost, and normally buys the brand that meets requirements at the lowest cost. Finally, surgeons affect the decision later by reporting their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the brand. The buying centre usually includes some obvious participants svho are involved formally in the buying decision. For example, the decision to buy a corporate jet will probably involve the company's chief pilot, a purchasing agent, some legal staff, a member of top management and others formally charged with the buying decision. It may also involve less obvious, informal participants, some of whom may actually make or strongly affect the buying decision. Sometimes, even the people in the buying centre are not aware of all the buying participants. For example, the decision about which corporate jet to buy may actually be made by a corporate board member who has an interest in flying and knows a lot about aircraft. This board member may work behind the scenes to sway the decision. Many business buying decisions result from the complex interactions of everchanging buying-ccntre participants.
What are the Main Influences on Business Buyers? Business buyers are subject to many influences when they make their buying decisions. Some marketers assume that the strongest influences are economic. They think buyers will favour the supplier that offers the lowest price or the best product or the most service. They concentrate on offering strong economic benefits to buyers. However, business buyers actually respond to both economic and personal factors: It has not been fashionable lately to talk about relationships in business. We're told that it has to be devoid of emotion. We must be cold, calculating and impersonal. Don't you believe it! Relationships make the world go round. Business people are human and social as well as interested in economics and investments and salespeople need to appeal to both sides. Purchasers may claim to be motivated by intellect alone, but the professional salesperson knows that they run on both reason and emotion. l3 When suppliers' offers are very similar, business buyers have little basis for strictly rational choice. Because they can meet organicntional goals with any supplier, buyers can allow personal factors to play a larger role in their decisions. However, when competing products differ greatly, business buyers are more accountable for their choice and tend to pay more attention to economic factors.
Business Buyer Behaviour * 287
Figure 7.4
Main influences on business buying behaviour
Figure 7.4 lists various groups of influences on business buyers - environmental, organization, interpersonal and individual.1-1
• Environmental Factors Business buyers are influenced heavily by factors in (he current and expected economic environment, such as the level of primary demand, the economic outlook and the cost of money. As economic uncertainty rises, business buyers cut back on new investments and attempt to reduce their inventories. An increasingly important environmental factor is shortages in key materials. Many companies a re now more willing to buy and hold larger inventories of scarce materials to ensure adequate supply. Business buyers are also affected by technological, political and competitive developments in the environment. Culture and customs can strongly influence business btiyer reactions to the marketer's behaviour and strategies, especially in the international marketing environment (see Marketing Highlight 7,2). The business marketer must watch these factors, determine how they will affect the buyer, and try to turn these challenges into opportunities.
• Organizational Factors Eaeh buying organization has its own objectives, policies, procedures, structure and systems, which must be understood by the business marketer. Questions such as these arise; How many people arc involved in the buying decision? Who are they? What arc their evaluative criteria? What are the company's policies and limits on its buyers? In addition, the business marketer should be aware of the following organizational trends in the purchasing area. UPGRADED PURCHASING. Buying departments have often occupied a low position in the management hierarchy, even though they often manage more than half of the company's costs. In some industries, such as telecommunications, manufacturers buy in items approaching 80 per cent of total cost. With good reason many companies are upgrading their purchasing activities. Koine companies have combined several functions - such as purchasing, inventory control, production scheduling and traffic - into a high-level function called strategic materials management. Buying departments in many multinational companies
288 • Chapter 7 Business Murkuts and Business Buyer Beiiaviour have rcsponsihility for buying materials and services around the world. Many companies are offering higher compensation in order to attract top talent in the buying area. This means that business marketers must also upgrade their salespeople to match the quality of today's business buyers.14 CENTRALIZED PURCHASING. In companies consisting of many divisions with differing needs, much of the purchasing is carried out at the division level. Recently, however, some large companies have tried to centralize purchasing. Headquarters identifies materials purchased by several divisions and buys them centrally. Centralized purchasing gives the companies more purchasing clout, which can produce substantial savings. PepsiCo aims to save SI00m a year, out of total costs of $2bn, by combining the buying power of their separate businesses, Paul Steele, their European vice-president of sales and marketing: 'When we went through the list it was surprising. For example, Pizza Hut buys an enormous quantity of cardboard for the boxes; Pepsi-Cola buys cardboard for soft drink trays. We're looking at whether we can leverage the sale.' They will try the same with buying flour, salt, spices, cooking oil and TV advertising air-time. 'The businesses developed very separately. We didn't have the scale to do this before, but it has suddenly become a very exciting proposition.'15 For the business marketer, this development means dealing with fewer, higher-level buyers. Instead of using regional sales forces to sell a large buyer's separate plants, the seller may use a national account sales force to service the buyer. For example, at Xerox, over 250 national account managers each handle one to five large national accounts with many scattered locations. The national account managers co-ordinate the efforts of an entire Xerox team - specialists, analysts, salespeople for individual products - to sell and service important national customers.1* National account selling is challenging and demands both a highlevel sales force and sophisticated marketing effort. LONG-TERM CONTRACTS. Business buyers are increasingly seeking longterm contracts with suppliers. For example, GM wants to buy from fewer suppliers which are willing to locate close to its plants and produce high-quality components. Business marketers arc also beginning to offer electronic order interchange systems to their customers. When using such systems, the seller places terminals hooked to the seller's computers in customers' offices. Then the customer can order needed items instantly by entering orders directly into the computer. The orders are transmitted automatically to the supplier. Many hospitals order directly from Baxter using order-taking terminals in their stockrooms. And many booksellers order from Follett's in this way. Although buyers are seeking closer relations with suppliers, businesses do not always have each other's interests at heart. In all relationships there is a tension between the comfort of loyalty and the freedom to shop around. Economic and technological changes can make long-term business-to-business relationships inherently unstable,' 7 The result is serial monogamy as firms switch between medium-term relationships. EXTRANET EXCHANGES. The European Commission was worried that electronic order interchanges would reduce competition by tying together buyers and suppliers through expensive TT systems. New Internet developments are now limiting the threat. Using extranet exchanges, buyers post their detailed require-
Business Buyer Behaviour • 289
merits on the Internet to reach numerous potential suppliers quickly and efficiently. This can be used for both routine and complex products. Japanese Airlines uses the Internet to post orders for in-flight materials, such as plastic cups. Its Web site carries technical specifications and drawings to show what the company wants, including the airlines logo. For more complicated products the Automotive Network Exchange helps car manufacturers obtain bids for complex components as well as computer aided designs. General Electric already buys SI billion through its Trading Process Network, which links 20 big industrial firms to suppliers.I(f .lUST-IN-TIME PRODUCTION SYSTEMS. The emergence of just-in-time (JIT) production systems has had a considerable impact on business purchasing policies. JIT, in particular, has produced notable changes in business marketing. JIT means that production materials arrive fit for use at the customer's factory exactly when needed for production, rather than being stored in the customer's inventory until used. The goal of JIT is zero inventory with 100 per cent quality. It calls for co-ordination between the production schedules of supplier and customer, so that neither has to carry much inventory. Effective use of JIT reduces inventory and lead times and increases quality, productivity and adaptability to change. Leyland Trucks practises JIT across the whole value chain, and consequently only needs to start production after it has orders. These practices greatly affect how business marketers sell to and service their customers. Since JIT involves frequent delivery, many business marketers have set up locations closer to their large JIT customers. Closer locations enable them to deliver smaller shipments more efficiently and reliably. Many firms have set up plants close to Nissan's car plant in the north of England and VW now has suppliers producing inside its Czech Skoda plant. Thus JIT means that a business marketer may have to make large commitments to important customers.1'
PURCHASING PERFORMANCE EVALUATION.
Some companies are setting
up incentive systems to reward purchasing managers for especially good purchasing performance, in much the same way that salespeople receive bonuses for especially good selling performance. These systems should lead purchasing managers to increase their pressure on sellers for the best terms.
• Interpersonal Factors The buying centre usually includes many participants who influence each other. The business marketer often finds it difficult to determine what kinds of interpersonal factors and group dynamics enter into the buying process. As one writer notes; 'Managers do not wear tags that say 'decision maker' or 'unimportant person'. The powerful are often invisible, at least to vendor representatives.'2' Nor docs the buying-centre participant with the highest rank always have the most influence. Participants may have influence in the buying decision because they control rewards and punishments, are well liked, have special expertise, or have a special relationship with other important participants. Interpersonal factors are often very subtle. Whenever possible, business marketers must try to understand these factors and design strategies that take them into account.
• Individual Factors Each participant in the bxisiness buying-decision process brings in personal motives, perceptions and preferences. These individual factors are affected by
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Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour
International Marketing Manners: When in Rome .
Marketing Hishlieht
Consolidated Amalgamation, Inc., thinks it's time that the rest of the world enjoyed the same fine products it has offered American consumers for two generations. It dispatches vice-president Harry E. Slicksmile to Europe to explore the territory. Mr Slicksmile stops first in London, where he makes short work of some bankers - he rings them up on the phone. He bandies Parisians with similar ease: after securing a table at La Tour d'Argent, he greets his luncheon guest, the director of an industrial engineering firm, with the words, 'Just call me Harry, Jacques.' In Germany, Mr Slicksmile is a powerhouse. Whisking through a lavish, state-of-the-art marketing presentation, complete with the flip charts and audio visuals, he shows them that this Georgia boy knows how to make a buck. Heading on to Milan, Harry strikes up a conversation with the Japanese businessman sitting next to him on the plane. He flips his card on to the guy's tray and, when the two say goodbye, shakes hands warmly and clasps the man's right arm. Later, for his appointment with the owner of an Italian packag-
ln order to succeed in global markets, companies must help their managers to understand the needs, customs and cultures of international business buyers.
ing-design firm, our hero wears his comfy corduroy sport coat, khald pants and Topsiders. Everybody knows Italians are zany and laid back, right? Wrong. Six months later, Consolidated Amalgamation has nothing to show for the trip but a pile of bills. There was nothing wrong with Consolidated Amalgamation's products, but the orders probably went to firms whose representative had not antagonized and insulted people as much as Harry did. In Europe, they weren't wild about Harry. This case has been exaggerated for emphasis. People are seldom such doits as Harry E. Slicksmile, but success in international business has a lot to do with knowing the territory and its people. Poor Harry tried, all right, but in all the wrong ways. The British do not, as a rule, make deals over the phone as much as Americans do. It's not so much a 'cultural' difference as a difference in approach, A proper Frenchman neither likes instant familiarity - questions about family, church or alma mater - nor refers to strangers by their first names. Harry's flashy presentation was probably also a flop with the Germans, who dislike overstatement and ostentation. According to one German expert, German businesspeople have become accustomed to dealing with Americans, Although differences in body language and customs remain, the past 20 years have softened them. However, calling secretaries by their first names would still be considered rude in Germany: 'They have a right to be called by their surname. You'd certainly ask for - and get - permission first.' In Germany people address each other formally and correctly: for example, someone with two doctorates (which is quite common) must be referred to as 'Herr Doktor Doktor'. When Harry Slicksmile grabbed his new Japanese acquaintance by the arm, the executive probably considered him disrespectful and presumptuous. The Japanese, like many others in Asia, have a 'no contact culture' in which even shaking hands is a strange experience. Harry made matters worse by tossing his business card.
Business Buyer Behaviour •
Japanese people revere the business card as an extension of self and as an indicator of rank. They do not hand it to people; they present it - with both hands. Hapless Harry's last gaffe was assuming that Italians are like Hollywood's stereotypes of them, The flair for design and style that has characterized Italian culture for centuries is embodied in the business people of Milan and Rome. They dress beautifully and admire flair, but they blanch at garishness or impropriety in others' attire. In order to compete successfully in global markets, or even to deal effectively with international firms in their home markets, companies must help their managers to understand the needs, customs and cultures of international business buyers. Here are a few more rules of social and business etiquette that managers should understand when doing business in another country, France
Germany
Indonesia
Italy
Dress conservatively, except in the south where more casual clothes are worn. Do not refer to people by their first names - the French are formal with strangers. Be especially punctual. A businessperson invited to someone's home should present flowers, preferably unwrapped, to the hostess. During introductions, greet Women first and wait until, or if, they extend their hands before extending yours, Learn how to sing at least one song. At the end of formal gatherings people often take turns in singing unaccompanied, Whether you dress conservatively or go native in a Giorgio Armani suit, keep in mind that Italian business people are style con-
scious. Make appointments well in advance. Prepare for and be patient with Italian bureaucracies. Japan Don't Imitate Japanese bowing customs unless you understand them thoroughly - who bows to whom, how many times and when. It's a complicated ritual, Saudi Arabia Although men will kiss each other in greeting, they will never kiss a woman in public. An American woman should wait for a man to extend his hand before offering hers. If a Saudi ot'i'ers refreshment, accept - it is an insult to decline it. United Toasts are often given at formal Kingdom dinners. If the host honours you with a toast, be prepared to reciprocate. Business entertaining is done more often at lunch than at dinner. United States Expect to be asked to meet and work at any time, over breakfast, lunch and dinner. Do not be taken in by street attire; American managers' dress code at work is very formal and conservative. Don't panic. Most businesspeople you are likely to meet are used to dealing with overseas guests and are used to forgiving their failings. There is, however, a big gap between being forgiven for social transgressions and getting the best deal. SOURCES: Adapted from Susan llarte, 'When hi Home, you should learn to do what the Romans do', The Atlanta Jfntrnal-Ctmstitution (22 January 1990), pp. Dl, 1)6; see also Lufthansa's Business Travel Guide/Europe; Sergey Frank, 'Global negotiating', Sales aurf Marketing Management (May 1992), pp. 64-§; Malcolm Wheatky, 'Going, going, gone', Business Lift (October 1994), pp. 65-S.
personal characteristics such as age, income, education, professional identification, personality and attitudes towards risk. Also, buyers have different buying styles. Some may be technical types who make in-depth analyses of competitive proposals before choosing a supplier. Other buyers may be intuitive negotiators who are adept at pitting the sellers against one another for the best deal.
292 • Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour
Table 7.1
Key stages of the business buying process in relation to important buying; situations BUYING SITUATIONS
STAGES OF THE BUYING PROCESS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Problem recognition General need description Product specification Supplier search Proposal solicitation Supplier selection Order-routine specification Performance review
NEW
MODIFIED
STRAIGHT
TASK
REBUY
REBUY
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Maybe Maybe Yes Maybe Maybe Maybe Maybe Yes
No No Yes No
Yes Yes Yes
Yes
No No No
Yes
SOURUB: Adapted from Patrick J. Robinson, Charles W. Paris, and Yoram Wind, Industrial Buying and Creative Marketing (Boston: Allyn & Bacun, 1967), p. 14.
Secretaries and personal assistants are an important target for DHL, the express courier; they may be told by their boss tq send a package but have the discretion to choose the courier. To contact them it advertises in Executive PA and other secretarial type publications and 'always attend the Secretaries Show'. In contrast UPS, which has a bias towards small twsiness-to-business parcels, finds that most decisions are made by traffic, distribution and logistics managers. To contact them it schedules its TV advertising around sports events, prime-time films and documentaries.21
How Do Business Buyers Make their Buying Decisions? Table 7.1 lists the eight stages of the business buying process.2- Buyers who face a new-task buying situation usually go through all stages of the buying process, Buyers making modified or straight rebuys may skip some of the stages. We will examine these steps for the typical new-task buying situation.
• Problem Recognition problem recognition The first stage of the business buying process in 'which someone in the company recognises a problem or need that can be met fry acquiring a good or a service.
The buying process begins when someone in the company recognizes a problem or a need that can be met by acquiring a specific good or a service. Problem recognition can result from internal or external stimuli. Internally, the company may decide to launch a new product that requires new production equipment and materials. Or a machine may break down and need new parts. Perhaps a purchasing manager is unhappy with a current supplier's product quality, service or prices. Externally, the buyer may get some new ideas at a trade show, see an ad or receive a call from a salesperson who offers a better product or a lower price.
Business Buyer Behaviour • 293
• General Need Description Having recognized a need, the buyer next prepares a general need description that describes the characteristics and quantity of the needed item. For standard items, this process presents few problems. For complex items, however, the buyer may have to work with others - engineers, users, consultants - to define the item. The team may want to rank the importance of reliability, durability, price and other attributes desired in the item. In this phase, the alert business marketer can help the buyers define their needs and provide information about the value of different product characteristics.
• Product Specification The buying organization next develops the item's technical product specifications, often with the help of a value analysis engineering team. Value analysis is an approach to cost reduction in which components are studied carefully to determine if they can be redesigned, standardized or made by less costly methods of production. The team decides on the best characteristics and specifies them accordingly. Sellers, too, can use value analysis as a tool to help secure a new account. By showing buyers a better way to make an object, outside sellers can turn straight rebuy situations into new-task situations that give them a chance to obtain new business.
• Supplier Search The buyer now conducts a supplier search to find the best vendors. The buyer can compile a small list of qualified suppliers by reviewing trade directories, doing a computer search or phoning other companies for recommendations. The newer die buying task and the more complex and costly the item, the greater the amount of time the buyer will spend searching for suppliers. The supplier's task is to get listed in the big directories and build a good reputation hi the marketplace. Salespeople should watch for companies in the process of searching for suppliers and make certain that their firm is considered.
general need description The stage in the business buying process in which (he company describes the general characteristics and quantity of a needed item. product specification The stage of the business buying process in nmhich the buying organization decides an and specifies the best technical product characteristics for a needed item. value analysis Art approach to cost reduction in which components are studied carefully to determine if they can be redesigned, standardized or made by less costly methods of production. supplier search The stage of the business buying process in which the buyer tries to find the bust vendors.
• Proposal Solicitation In the proposal solicitation stage of the business buying process, the buyer invites qualified suppliers to submit proposals. In response, some suppliers will send only a catalogue or a salesperson. However, when the item is complex or expensive, the buyer will usually require detailed written proposals or formal presentations from each potential supplier. Business marketers must be skilled in researching, writing and presenting proposals in response to buyer proposal solicitations. Proposals should be marketing documents, not just technical documents. Presentations should inspire confidence and should make the marketer's company stand out from the competition.
proposal solicitation The stage of the business buying process in •which the buyer invites qualified suppliers to submit proposals.
Supplier Selection The members of the buying centre now review the proposals and select a supplier or suppliers. During supplier seleetion, the buying centre will often draw up a list of the desired supplier attributes and their relative importance. In one survey, purchasing executives listed the following attributes as most important in influencing the relationship between supplier and customer: quality products and services, on-time delivery, ethical corporate behaviour, honest communication
supplier selection The stage of the business buying process in which the buyer reviews proposals and selects a supplier or suppliers.
294 • Chapter / Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour
Table 7.2
An example of vendor analysis
and competitive prices.2-1 Other important factors include repair and servicing capabilities, technical aid and advice, geographic location, performance history and reputation. The members of the buying centre will rate suppliers against these attributes and identify the best suppliers. They often use a supplier evaluation method similar to the one shown in Table 7.2. The importance of various supplier attributes depends on the type of purchase situation the buyer faces.24One study of 220 purchasing managers showed that economic criteria were most important in situations involving routine purchases of standard products. Performance criteria became more important in purchases of non-standard, more complex products. The supplier's ability to adapt to the buyer's changing needs was important for almost all types of purchase. Buyers may attempt to negotiate with preferred suppliers for better prices and terms before making the final selections. In the end, they may select a single supplier or a few suppliers. Many buyers prefer multiple sources of supplies to avoid being totally dependent on one supplier and to allow comparisons of prices and performance of several suppliers over time. order-routine specification The stage of the business buying process in which the buyer writes the final order with the chosen suppliers(s), listing the technical specifications, quantity needed, expected time of delivery, return policies and warranties.
• Order-Routine Specification The buyer now prepares an order-routine specification. It includes the final order with the chosen supplier or suppliers and lists items such as technical specifications, quantity needed, expected time of delivery, return policies and warranties. In the ease of maintenance, repair and operating items, buyers are increasingly using blanket coiifruc-ts rather than periodic purchase orders. A blanket contract creates a long-term relationship in which the supplier promises to resupply the buyer as needed at agreed prices for a set time period. The seller holds the stock and the buyer's computer automatically prints out an order to the seller when stock is needed. A blanket order eliminates the expensive process of renegotiating a purchase each time stock is required. It also allows buyers to
Institutional and Government Markets
•
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write more, hut smaller, purchase orders, resulting in lower inventory levels and carrying costs. Blanket contracting leads to more single-source buying and to buying more items from that source. This practice locks the supplier in tighter with the buyer and makes it difficult for other suppliers to break in unless the buyer becomes dissatisfied with prices or service.
• Performance Review In this stage, the buyer reviews supplier performance. The buyer may contact users and ask them to rate their satisfaction. The performance review may lead the buyer to continue, modify or drop the arrangement. The seller's job is to monitor the same factors used by the buyer to make sure that the seller is giving the expected satisfaction. We have described the stages that would typically occur in a new-task buying situation. The eight-stage model provides a simple view of the business buyingdecision process. The actual process is usually much more complex. In the modified rebuy or straight rebuy situation, some of these stages would be compressed or bypassed. Each organization buys in its own way and each buying situation has unique requirements. Different buy ing-centre participants may be involved at dit'r'cnmt stages of the process. Although certain buying-process steps usually do occur, buyers do not always follow them in the same order and they may add other steps. Often, buyers will repeat certain stages of the process.
Institutional and Government Markets So far, our discussion of organizational buying has focused largely on the buying behaviour of business buyers. Much of this discussion also applies to the buying
performance review Tlie stage of the business buying process in which the buyer races its satisfaction with suppliers, deciding whether to continue, modify or drop tiiem.
296 • Chapter? ftusiness Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour practices of institutional and government organizations. However, these two nonbusiness markets have additional characteristics and needs. Thus, in this final section, we will address the special features of institutional and government markets.
Institutional Markets institutional market Schools, hospitals, nursing homes, prisons and other institutions that provide goods and services to people in their care.
The institutional market consists of schools, hospitals, nursing homes, prisons and other institutions that provide goods and services to people in their care. Institutions differ from one another in their sponsors and in their objectives. For example, in the United Kingdom, BUPA hospitals are operated for profit and are predominantly used by people with private medical insurance. National Health Service trust hospitals provide health care as part of the welfare state, while charities, such as the Terrencc ITiggins Trust and many small hospices, run centres for the terminally ill. Low budgets and captive patrons characterize many institutional markets. For example, many campus-based students have little choice hut to eat whatever food the university supplies. A catering organization decides on the quality of food to buy for students. The buying objective is not profit because the food is provided as a part of a total service package. Nor is strict cost minimization the goal students receiving poor-quality food will complain to others and damage the college's reputation. Thus the university purchasing agent must search for institutional food vendors whose quality meets or exceeds a certain minimum standard and whose prices are low. Many marketers set up separate divisions to meet the special characteristics and needs of institutional buyers. For example, Heinz produces, packages and prices its ketchup and other products differently to serve better the requirements of hospitals, colleges and other institutional markets.
Government Markets government marker Governmental units national and local - that purchase or rent goods and services for carrying out the main functions of government.
The government market offers large opportunities for many companies. Government buying and business buying are similar in many ways. But there are also differences that must be understood by companies wishing to sell products and services to governments. To succeed in the government market, sellers must locate key decision makers, identify the factors that affect buyer behaviour and understand the buying decision process. Government buying organizations are found at national and local levels. The national level is the largest and its buying units operate in both the civilian and military sectors. Various government departments, administrations, agencies, boards, commissions, executive offices and other units carry out buying, Sometimes, the centra/ buying operation helps to centralize the buying of commonly used items in the civilian section (for example, office furniture and equipment, vehicles, fuels) and in standardizing buying procedures for the other agencies. Defence Ministries usually carry out the buying of military equipment for the Forces.
• Strong Influences on Government Buyers Like consumer and business buyers, government buyers are affected by environmental, organizational, interpersonal and individual factors. One unique thing about government buying is that it is carefully watched by outside publics, ranging from elected representatives to a variety of private groups interested in
Instriudimut and Government Markets * 297 how the government spends taxpayers' money. Because their spending decisions are subject to public review, government organizations are buried in paperwork. Elaborate forms must be filled and signed before purchases are approved. The level of bureaucracy and political sensitivities are high and marketers must cut through this red tape. Ways of dealing with governments vary greatly from country to country, and knowledge of local practices is critical to achieving sales successes (see Marketing Highlight 7.3). Non-economic criteria also play a growing role in government buying. Government buyers are asked to favour depressed business firms and areas, small business firms, and business firms that avoid race, sex or age discrimination. Politicians will fight to have large contracts awarded to firms in their area or for their constituency to be the site of big construction projects. EuroDisney is an extreme case, the Dumber Bridge and the Nimrod AWAG aircraft are others. Sellers need to keep these factors in mind when deciding to seek government business. Government organizations typically require suppliers to submit bids and they normally award contracts to the lowest bidders. In some cases, however, government buyers make allowances for superior quality or for a firm's reputation for completing contracts on time. Governments will also buy on a negotiated contract basis for complex projects that involve substantial R & D costs and risks or when there is little effective competition. Governments tend to favour domestic suppliers over foreign suppliers, which is a repeated complaint of multinational businesses. Each country tends to favour its own nationals, even when non-domestic firms make superior offers. The European Economic Commission is trying to reduce such biases.
• How Do Government Buyers Make their Buying Decisions? Government buying practices often seem complex and frustrating to suppliers, who have voiced many complaints about government purchasing procedures. Those include too much paperwork and bureaucracy, needless regulations, emphasis on low bid prices, decision-making delays, frequent shifts in buying personnel and too many policy changes. Yet, despite such obstacles, selling to the government can often be mastered in a short time. The government is generally helpful in providing information about its buying needs and procedures, and is often as eager to attract new suppliers as the suppliers are to find customers. When the mighty US Fleet edged its way up the Gulf during Desert Storm, five little plastic boats led it. The little Royal Navy Hunt Class MCMVa (Mine Counter-Measure Vessels) were in a league of their own at the dangerous job of clearing a path for the main fleet. They were made by Vesper Thornycroft, a small British company which is a master at selling to governments around the world. While the world's leading defence contractors seek alliances and mergers to meet the 'peace dividend's' reduced demand, Vosper has an order book worth £600 million and 14 vessels under construction, 95 per cent of them for export. Part of its strength is Vesper's dominance in the niche for glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) mine hunters, corvettes and patrol craft. Just the sort of ships that small navies want. Vbsper's strength extends beyond the vessels. With its vessels it offers a maritime training and support service where it has pioneered computerbased learning. Many clients come from the Middle East and travel with their families, so Vosper has built an Arabic school for 70 pupils next to the maritime training centre. It now does training for other firms selling to the Middle East, so strengthening its position in the region. Others of
298 • Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour
Political Graft: Wheeze or Sleaze?
Marketing Highlight
On 26 May 1994 at the White House, President Bill Clinton's chef de cabinet was forced to resign. He had used a government helicopter to take him to a game of golf. lie was ordered to reimburse the Treasury for the cost of his jaunt, 813,129.66. Other continents; other morals. On 20 June 1994 in Paris, the new Members of the European Parliament were invited to a briefing on the many perks attached to their new status. The subject excited Jean-Francois Hory, president of Bernard Tapie's socialist MRG party. From his place in the front row lie turned in his seat, fixed a knowing eye on his new colleagues and addressed them in the manner of an old hand talking down to university freshmen: 'One thing you need to know about travel allowances - they'll want to know your address. If you have one or more second homes, make sure you list the one furthest from Brussels.' Obviously, a return flight from Marseilles to Brussels is worth more than the tram fare from Loosles-Lille to Brussels. Do you detect a whiff of moral purity?
The auction rigging would be illegal anywhere, but often what is common practice in one country will bring a senior politician down in another. All governments have codes of practice, but as Table 1 shows, they are not consistent. There are also different cultural traditions about obeying rules. In Britain a Treasury minister had to fight for his political life following accusations that a controversial Arab businessman had paid for a weekend that the minister had had at the Paris Ritz Hotel. The bill was less than Ffr4,000 and in no other European country would he have had to declare such a gift. German political representatives have to sign a register, but the Bundestag's guidelines suggest only declaring gifts over DM10,000. In Japan the attitude towards political corruption is changing slowly. In 1988 Kiichi Miyazawa resigned as finance minister after being caught up in the Recruit scandal. Recruit, an employment agency, had secretly given large tranches of its own shares to politicians, including cabinet ministers, in exchange for political favours. But by 1991 Mr Miyazawa was sufficiently rehabilitated to become prime minister. This follows the 'traditional' pattern for Japanese politicians caught taking bribes oro-shoku, 'defiling one's job'. O-shoku carries no moral overtones about wrongdoing, it just means that through carelessness the publicity has dishonoured the politician's honoured position. The usual line of defence in the Diet is that the politicians knew nothing, since their aides took the money. In that way the politician does not lose face, junior aides are not worth prosecuting and ever;'one is happy. The mood changed after the Sagawa scandal. Shin Kanemaru needed money to split the ruling LDP and start one of his own. He needed a lot of cash and most of it came from Sagasva Kyubin, a trucking company that wanted political favour in order to expand its business. Gold bars and bonds were found in Mr Kanemaru's home and office. He was found guilty of not reporting Y2SO million in 'political donations', but fined less than
7.3
Political corruption used to be a thing other countries did, but no more. In the United States, United Kingdom, France, Spain, Italy, Japan and elsewhere, accusations of political corruption involving businesses have shaken the countries' leaders. Eurofraud is estimated to cost EU taxpayers over 10 billion ecu per year. Sometimes the t'iddles are minor, like exaggerating expense claims on Eurojaimts, but often they are not. In 1991 Antonio Quatraro leapt to his death from a Brussels window. He was a European Commission official responsible for authorizing subsidies. In 1990 a fraud was discovered where he allegedly received backhanders for rigging the auction of Greek-grown tobacco to benefit Italian traders.
Institutional and Government Markets
TABI.EI GOVERNMENT CODES OF PRACTICE IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES COUNTRY France Germany Italy Spain United Kingdom United States
COMPULSORY
REGISTER
REGISTER OF
REGISTER OF
OPEN TO THE
INTERESTS?
PUBLIC?
INCOMPysiIARES DETAILS?
MPs DECLARE INTEREST IN DEBATE?
MUST DECLARE FREE RlTZ WEEKEND?
Assets Yes Income Yes Yes Yes
No Yes Yes
No No Yes No No Yes
No No No No Yes No
No No No
No
Yes Yes
No
Yes
Yesa
NOTE: 'Gifts over §250 nut acceptable.
y100,000. After this, a new term entered the Japanese political vocabulary, seijijuhai or 'politics rotten to the point of disintegration'. Such large-scale 'crony capitalism' has much to do with the meltdown of the Tiger economies in the late 1990s. 'Indonesia is in the most invidious position,' said Chris Tinker, regional economist at ING Bering in Hong Kong. 'Crony capitalism and pressure from the president's children, with privileged business interests, have held back economic restructuring, causing massive capital flight.' Meanwhile Indonesia's annual per-capita consumption declined from US$1,200 to 8300; stook-market capitalization went from $118 billion to Sl7 billion; and onSy 22 of the country's 286 publicly listed companies remained solvent. When selling to governments, especially
foreign ones, marketers face a great dilemma. Should they follow St Ambrose's advice to St Augustine: 'When you are at Rome live in the Roman style; when you are elsewhere live as they live elsewhere'? Or should they behave like a saint? SOURCES; The loading quotation is from 'An open letter to chose unnerved by the little judges', by MEP Thierry JeanPierre Terry; other sources are Terry McCarthy, 'It's not graft, just duty anil obligation', /ndependenl (27 October 1994), p, 16; 'Hands up all those hit by sleaze', The Economist (29 October 1.994), pp. 49-51; 'The sour taste of gravy', The Kconvmist (5 November 1994), p. 50; Alix Christie and Julie Read, 'fraud crusader gears up for a fight, 7'hu European (11-17 November 1994), p. 11; John McBeth, 'Ground zero', For Eastern,-Economic Review (22 January 1998), pp. 14-17. See also a series of five special reports on 'Asia in Crisis' published in the Financiul Times between 12 and 16 January W98.
Vesper's activities get it closely involved in its customers' operations. The company has a three-year contract for the Ministry of Defence's Record Data Centre and has a five-year contract to operate maritime services craft for the Royal Air Force. Not had for a company sold by British Shipbuilders to a management team in 1985 for £18.5 million - in 1994 the company's value was $236 million.25 Many companies that sell to the government are not so marketing oriented as Vosper Thornycroft for a number of reasons. Total government spending is determined by elected officials rather than by any marketing effort to develop this market. Government buying has emphasized priee, making suppliers invest their effort in technology to bring costs down. When the product's characteristics are specified carefully, product differentiation is not a marketing factor. Nor do advertising or personal selling matter mueh in winning bids on an open-bid basis. More companies now have separate marketing departments for government marketing efforts. British Aerospace, Eastman Kodak and Goodyear are examples.
299
300 • Chapter 7 tiwsmess Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour These companies want to co-ordinate bids and prepare them more scientifically, to propose projects to meet government needs rather than just respond to government requests, to gather competitive intelligence, and to prepare stronger communications co describe the company's competence.
Summary The business market is vast. In many ways, business markets are like consumer markets, but business markets usually have fewer, larger buyers who are more geographically concentrated. Business demand is derived, largely inelastic and more fluctuating. More buyers are usually involved in the business buying decision and business buyers are better trained and more professional than are consumer buyers. In general, business purchasing decisions are more complex and the buying process is more formal than consumer buying. The business market includes firms that buy goods and services in order to produce products and services co sell to others. It also includes retailing and wholesaling firms that buy goods in order to resell them at a profit. Business buyers make decisions that vary with the three types of buying situation: straight re&ijys, modified rebuys and new tasks. The decision-making unit of a buying organization -the buying centre - may consist of many people playing many roles. The business marketer needs to know the following: Who are the main participants? In what decisions do they exercise influence? What is their relative degree of influence? And what evaluation criteria does each decision participant use? The business marketer also needs to understand the primary environmental, interpersonal and individual influences on the buying process. The business buy ing-decision process itself consists of eight stages: problem recognition, general needs description, product specification, supplier search, proposal solicitation , supplier selection, order-routine specification and performance review. As business buyers become more sophisticated, business marketers must keep in step by upgrading their marketing accordingly. The institutional market consists of schools, hospitals, prisons and other institutions that provide goods and services to people in their care. Low budgets and captive patrons characterize these markets. The government market is also vast. Government buyers purchase products and services for defence, education, public welfare and other public needs. Government buying practices are highly specialized and specified, with open bidding or negotiated contracts characterizing most of the buying. Government buyers operate under the watchful eye of politicians and many private watchdog groups. Hence, they tend to require more forms and signatures and to respond more slowly in placing orders.
Key Terms Business buying process 276 Business market 276 Buyers 285 Buying centre 284 Deciders 285 Derived demand 277 Gatekeepers 285 General need description 293 Government market 296
Inelastic demand 278 Influences 285 Institutional market 296 Modified rebuy 283 New task 283 Order-routine specification 294 Performance review 295 Problem recognition 292 Product specification 293
Proposal solicitation 293 Straight rcbuy 283 Supplier search 293 Supplier selection 293 Systems buying 284 Users 284 Value analysis 293
References
•
301
Discussing the Issues 1. Identify the ways in which the fashion clothing market differs from the military uniform market. 2. Which of the main types of bviying situation are represented by the following individual circumstances? • BMW's purchase of computers that go in cars and adjust engine performance to changing driving conditions. • Volkswagen's purchase of spark plugs for its line of Jettas. •
4.
Discuss the principal environmental factors that would affect the purchase of radar speed detectors by national and local police forces.
5.
Industrial products companies have advertised products to the general public that consumers are not able to buy. How does this strategy help a company sell products to resellers?
6.
Assume you are selling a fleet of fork-lift trucks to be used by a large distribution and warehousing firm. The drivers of the fork-lift trucks need the latest technology that provides comfort, makes driving easy and improves manoeuvrability. This means more expensive trucks that are more profitable for you. The fleet buyer, however, wants to buy established (not necessarily latest) technology that gives the highest productivity. Who might be in the buying centre? How might you meet the varying needs of these participants?
Honda's purchase of light bulbs for a new Legend model.
3. How would a marketer of office equipment identify the buying centre for a law firm's purchase of dictation equipment for each of its partners?
Applying the Concepts Take your college/university as an example of a business customer for books and other educational materials. Imagine that you are a representative from a publisher who intends to establish sales to the college/university. How might you use the model of business buyer behaviour to help you develop a strategy for marketing effectively to this customer? How useful is the model? What (if any) are the limitations? Are there different levels of customers in this situation (e.g. the library as a buying centre; course team members who agree on the textbooks to recommend for student adoption and library stocks;
the individual tutor who chooses recommended textbooks and requests the library to stock; or the college/university bookshop)? How might you deal with these different levels of customer? Make a list of the key factors that a local government institution or agency might consider when deciding to purchase new coffee-making machines for users in its offices. Remembering how government buyers make their buying decisions, suggest a scenario that you, as a potential supplier, would use to sell to this institutional buyer.
References Excerpts from 'Major sales; who really does the buying', by Thomas V. Bonorna (May-June 1982). Copyright © 1982 by the President and Follows of Harvard College; all rights reserved. See also Scott Ticer, 'Why Guifstream's rivals art: gazing up in envy'. Business Week (16 February 1987), pp. 66-7; David Boggis, 'Consolidation is the key to eeonomy anil progress', Financial Times (2 September 1992), p. Xlli; Chuck Hawkins, 'Can a new bird get Gulfstream flying?'. Business Week (15 February 1993), pp. 114-16; Roland Rudd and Robert Peston, 'Tiny Rowland faces his day of reckoning', Financial Times* (31 August 1994), p. 17; Paul Belts, 'Weighed down by high-flying image'. Financial Times
2.
(28 September 1994), p. 24; Robert Peston, 'Rowland to quit Lonrho board', Financial Times (4 November 1994), p. 1; Penny Hughes, 'The S600 million gamble'. BusinessAge (November 1994), p. 30B, Ian Verchtre, 'Long-haul luxury froni bombardier', The European (4-]0 November 1994), p. 30. This definition is adapted from Frederick E. Webster, ,!r and Yoram Wind. Organizatitmal liuyirig Belirivior (Engluwood Cliffs, N'J: Prentiee Hall, 1972), p. 2. For discussions of similarities and differences in consumer and business marketing, see Edward F. Fern and James R. brown, 'The industrial/consumer marketing dichotomy a
302 • Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour
ease of insufficient justification', Journal of Marketing (Fall 1984), pp. 68-77; Ron J. Kornakovich, 'Consumer methods work for business marketing: yes; no'. Marketing News (21 November 1988), pp. 4, 13-14. 4. See William S. Bishop, John L. Graham and Michael II. Jones, 'Volatility of derived demand in industrial markets and its management implications', Journal ctfMarketing (Spring 1984), pp. 68-77. 5. That sinking feeling', Tlie Economist (17 January 1998), pp. 71-2; Sheila MeNutty, 'Malaysia seeks Boeing delay', Financial Times (19 January 1988); John Ridding and Michael Skainker, 'Aircraft makers' confidence dented', Pinoneiai 'Kmes (20 January 1998); Alkman Grantisas, 'Scant Shelter,' i-'ar Eastern Economic Rtroiew (22 January 1998), pp. 54-5. 6. See James C. Anderson and James A. Narus, 'Value-based segmentation, targeting and re kt kin ship- building in business markets', ISBM Report Xo.12 - 1989, The Institute tor the Study of Business Markets, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. 1989; Lawrence A. Crosby, Kenneth R. Evans and Deborah Cowles, 'Relationship quality and services selling, an interpersonal influence perspective', Journal of Marketing (July 1990), pp. 68-81; Barry J. Farber anil Joyce Wycoff, 'Relationships: six steps to success', Safes and Marketing Management (April 1992), pp. 50-S; Kevin Done. 'Harmony under the bonnet', Financial Times (8 November 1994), p. 17. 7. Iternard Simon and Paul Berts, 'Boeing may tie component deals to aircraft sales'. Financial Times (8 November 1994), p 1. 8. Patrick J. Robinson. Charles W. Paris and Yoram Wind, Industrial Buying ikturaiar and Creative .Marketing (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1967). fiee also Erin Anderson, Weyien Ghu and Barton Weitz, 'Industrial purchasing; an empirical exploration of the buyclass framework', Juurnul of Marketing (July 1987), pp. 71-86. 9. Por more on systems selling, see Robert R. Reader, Edward 0. Brierty and Betty II. Reader, Industrial Marketing: Analysis, planning and control (F.nglewood Cliffs, N,J: Prentice Hall, 1991), pp. 264-7. 10. Webster and Wind, Organisational liuying Behavior, op.cit., p. 6. For more reading on buying centres, see Bonoma, 'Major sales', op. eit.; and Donald W. Jackson, Jr, Janet E. Keith and Richard K. liurdick, 'Purchasing agents' perceptions of industrial buying center influence: a situational approaeh', Journal of Marketing (Fall 1984), pp. 75-83.
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 1 7. 18. 19.
20.
21. 22. 23. 24.
25.
Webster and Wind, Organizational Buying Behavior, op eit., pp. 78-80. Clifton J. Reichard. 'industrial selling: beyond price and persistence'. Harvard /Justness Review (Marrch-April 1985), p. 128. Webster and Wind, Organisational Buying Belia^iior, op.cit., pp. 33-7. Peter W. Turnbull, 'Organisational buying behaviour', in Michael J. Baker (ed.j, The Marketing Buoli (London: Heinemaiin, 1994), pp. 147-64. Diane Summers, 'Living life to the max'. Financial Times (29 September 1994), p 15 Thaycr C. Taylor. 'Xerox's sales force learns a new game', Sales and Marketing Management (1 July 1985), pp. 48-51. Keith l-fluis, 'Are business-to-business relationships inherently unstable?', Journal of Marketing Management, 13, 5 (1997), pp. 367-79. 'To byte the hand that feeds', The Economist (17 January 1998), pp. 75-6. Michiyo Nakamoto, 'Building networks'. Pinandat Times (13 November 1992), p. 8; Richard Gourlay, 'From fat to lean enterprises', Financial Times (8 November 1994), p. 11; Carlos Cordon, 'Doing justice to just in time', Financial Times (9 November 1994). p. 14. lionoma, 'Major sales', op.cit., p. 114. See also A jay Kohli, 'Determinants of influence in organizational buying: a contingency approach', Journal of Marketing (July 1989), pp. 50-65. Malcom Brown, 'Signed, sealed, delivered',Marketing Business (June 1992), pp. 30-2. Robinson, Faris and Wind, Industrial Buying Beftotnor, op.eit., p. 14. See 'What buyers really want'. Sales and Marketing Management (October 1989), p. 30. Donald R I.ehmaim and John O'Shaughnessy, 'Decision criteria used in buying different categories of products', Journal of Purchasing and Materials Management (Spring 1982), pp. 9-14. General II. Norman Scriwartzkopf, It Doesm'f Take a Hero (London: Bantam, 1992); General Sir Peter dc la Billicre, Storm Command (London. HnrpcrCtJIins, 1992); Andrew Bolgar, 'Diversifying out of lumpincss', Financial Times (2 November 1994), p. 26.
CUse 7: Troll-AEG
Case 7 TrolI-AEG
J. FELIU DK LA PENA, SA (JFP) is a Spanish manufaeturer of electric lamps1 known for its modern Troll products. In the late afternoon of 21 January 1992 Miguel Tey Feliu de la Pefia, JFP's managing director, was reflecting on the reciprocal commercial distribution contracts to be signed the next day with the managers of AEG's Technical Lighting Business Area {AEG Aktiengesellschaft Fachbereich Liehttechnik, or AEG-LT) from Germany. The first JFP 'mirror' contract granted AEG a non-exclusive right to distribute its products in Germany. The second granted JFP and its subsidiary Troll-France a non-exclusive right to distribute AEG products in Spain and France. Miguel Tey did not doubt that the contracts needed signing, but reflected on several questions: First, when I review the decisions that have been taken up to this point in time, I wonder if we are doing the right thing in entering into this type of agreement or whether it would have been better to continue following our own fully autonomous growth path, as we have done until now. At the same time, I wonder whether AEG is the best partner for us. Also, when I reread the two contracts, I wonder if something is missing or should not be there, or whether any of the sections should be reworded. Second, if we accept everything done until now and do sign the contracts, then there are two major questions with regard to our immediate future that must be answered: What must we decide and do to ensure that this new reciprocal relationship between Troll and AEG works, and works well? Ami finally, how will all this end up? In other words, where will our company be three, five or ten years from now? Will these agreements still be in full force? No doubt because of the obvious difference in size between JFP and AEG, someone had recently said, only half jokingly: 'In no time at all, we'll all be wearing AEG T-shirts.' J. Feliu de la Peoa, SA (JFP) Mr Julio Feliu de la Pena, grandfather of the brothers Xavier and Miguel Tey Feliu de la Pena, started manufacturing 'classic' design lamps in 1929, in Barcelona. In 1974 Miguel and Xavier became owners of JFP, which then operated from ground floor premises very close to the centre of Barcelona. In the same year Nordart Industria, SA offered them the possibility of selling its products marketed under the Troll brand. It was a new lighting system made up by spot projectors, power tracks and adapters (the adapter being the part * IESE, University of Navarra, Barcelona-Madrid
303
304 • Chapter? Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour linking the spot projector to the power-carrying track). Miguel saw that the product had a we 11-presented, modern design, and he offered to buy Nordart's entire output if given exclusive sales rights for Spain. Nordart ludustria, SA was a small factory without any sales force that was badly stung when a distributor had copied its product and left it in the lurch. Joaquim Maso. the company's owner, accepted the appointment of JFP as its sole agent after establishing that JFP would operate with a gross margin of 30 per cent. By 1977, their Troll sales had increased to Ptal30 million. Miguel realized that 'the future was Troll'. In 1978 Joaquim Maso and the Tcy brothers agreed to merge both companies. During the next decade, the company's sales grew at slightly more than 50 per cent per annum. The workforce increased from 25 to 100 employees and the company became market leader in Spain in this type of accent lighting elements, JFP's success is attributable to the changes in the distribution channel and the continuous improvement and redesign of its products. JFP ceased selling through traditional (normally classic design) lamp retailers and pioneered the sale of spotlights and down-lights through electrical goods wholesalers-stockists. Miguel Tey considered that this change of distribution policy had been only partly successful. He soon realized his limited negotiating power with these wholesalers. To counteract this, Miguel sought an alliance with noncompeting companies whose products sold through the same electrical goods stores. He managed to persuade the general managers of a wire company, a transformer company and a cable fastener company to join in an alliance. A network of self-employed representatives sold the products of all four manufacturers. All four manufacturers placed their products on consignment in the representative's warehouse. The representative would then sell and deliver the goods, sending the delivery note to each manufacturer. In Spain, this kind of wholesaler-stockist sells mostly to contractors specializing in electrical installations, either in new buildings or in building refurbishing jobs. Most of their sales were 'counter' sales, made on the spot to contractors who came to their outlet with a list of their immediate needs and would take the goods with them. In exchange for these functions, the representative received a commission agreed upon separately with each one of the four manufacturing companies. Thirteen joint 'branches' covered practically the entire Spanish market. And all that with just paying a commission - that is, a variable cost - and with a minimum investment in stock in all thirteen warehouses. An important point to remember is that thanks to our pioneering role in selling accent lighting elements in Spain, JFP's margins were very high. Our sale price to the electrical goods store was between 2.5 and 3 times our manufacturing cost! In time JFP became the unofficial leader of the network as the representatives mainly followed Miguel Tey's lead. JFP's young general manager had managed to win them over through a combination of an extremely cordial personal relationship, an excellent service from his company, a product range with skyrocketing sales and a It) per cent commission. The other three companies paid them 5 per cent commission or less. Range Changes Design changes helped JFP's success. Originally each lamp model and variants, of which there were about 50, came in 16 colours and consisted of several parts that were specific to each model. In total, there were about 3,200 different stock-keeping units (skus). Miguel reduced the colour range
Case 7: Troll-AEQ
from 16 to 4 (white, black, gold and stainless steel) and redesigned the lamps. This innovation made the four basic parts of the lighting systems manufactured fully interchangeable, which allowed the number of skus to be cut down to less than 200. This produced a dramatic increase in turnover for warehouses in the logistics chain for JFP and its immediate customers. Miguel also implemented significant changes in the design process of its lighting elements. By 1985 Miguel had decided that he needed to create an aesthetic consistency and identifying style in his lighting element designs and started to commission original designs from two freelance industrial designers. He wanted his lighting elements to be immediately recognizable. The combination of pioneering accent lighting in Spain (with downlights, spots and tracks), the network of 'branches' made up of the 13 independent representatives, a well-designed product range and ample margins turned the company into one of the most profitable in Spain in this industry. Forecast sales for 1989 were about Ptal.5 billion, with net income of about Pta400 million and a market share between 25 and 30 per cent of indoor accent lighting elements. Recruitment of Javier Rocasalbas Faced with a strong increase in demand, the company no longer had sufficient capacity to supply all the orders. Furthermore, Miguel was in serious danger of being overwhelmed by the increasing complexity of the company's management. Consequently, in 1988 he decided to recruit Javier Rocasalbas as general manager. Miguel became managing director and his brother Xavier became president. Javier Rocasalbas was 40 years old. He had graduated as an industrial engineer, but his early work experience was in engineering production. Before joining JFP, he had worked in a plastics factory where, for the first time, his duties went beyond the technical. Rocasalbas realized that, although the products were aesthetically excellent, their technical quality was poor. The electromechanical aspects had been neglected to a considerable extent, which led to difficulties when attempting to assemble the lamps on an industrial scale. In 1989 he increased the design team by recruiting Carlos Galan, an industrial engineer and electromechanical designer, as its manager. A designer specialized in mechanical functions and a draughtsman was also recruited to the team. By the end of 1991, the design and quality department had between 12 and 14 people responsible for product performance, compliance with electrical safety standards, and aesthetic quality of the products as individual items and as parts of the entire collection. The company changed from a design process in which the cost price was known only at the end, to one where a cost price was set before starting the design work. The 'star' products in 1988 were the fixed, low-voltage built-in downlight in black or white and the swivelling ball-spot. They were relatively simple products to design, manufacture, assemble and install at the point of use. They were standard products of average quality, usually bought by electricians or electrical contractors for easy installation in private homes, shops, offices and so forth. The 'branches' - the 13 sales representatives with their own warehouse - sold indiscriminately and massively, without distinguishing between different types of customer. JFP published a single price list, which carried a 45 per cent discount for all customers. Tensions in the Range From 1988, competition in Spain became much fiercer. A large number of lamp manufacturers appeared, Hooding the market with lighting elements that had
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306 • Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Btiyer Kehaviour designs very similar to Troll's, Some even used Troll products to take the photographs for some competitor's catalogue. By the end of 1991, between 25 and 30 Spanish lamp manufacturers offered virtually identical, standard accent lighting elements. The resulting price war severely eroded sales margins from about .30 per cent in 1988 to about 15 per cent in 1991. Miguel's response was to decide that if Troll products sold well in Spain, they should also be successful in France, which had accounted for almost Pta4 million of the company's exports. Always impulsive and quick off the mark, Miguel went to Lyon, bought an old building near the high-speed train (TGV) station and recruited Josep Sitja as general manager of Troll-France. A Catalan by birth, he had worked until that time as an electrical contractor in Marseilles. By 1988 JFP was exporting Pta46 million worth of products to France, but part of this export figure included the start-up stock of finished product shipped to Lyon. The standard products also had serious difficulties in the French market. The quality was not right, the price was not right and they were not certified as conforming to the French standards. However, aesthetically they were very well accepted and that could become the decisive factor differentiating Troll lamps. It was very difficult to achieve a significant level of sales in France without offering an integral, complete and coherent product range. The Troll range was solely interior accent lighting elements: that is, tracks and spots, down-lights and suspended fluorescent lights self-connected by jacks. The company had no built-in fluorescent panels (used mainly in offices), industrial lights (for lighting factories) or any type of righting elements for installation and use outdoors, to light public highways, parks and gardens, tunnels, sports facilities and so on. Miguel and Javier's reaction to this setback was a firm resolve to gain a presence in the European market, and to do this by changing their product range, slowly phasing out their standard products and starting to design, manufacture and sell technical architectural lighting elements. Rocasalbas explains: We considered that the more sophisticated features of the new generation of lighting elements we wanted to design and launch onto the market would be more difficult for our direct competitors, most of which were small companies, to imitate. We were up against companies which were limited riot only by their technical skills but also by their financial possibilities, as an 'architectural' lighting element of this type may mean investing about Pta20 million in design, tooling, moulds, etc. It was rather an intuitive change; I don't think we really knew what we were letting ourselves in for. Or, at least, at that time, we were not aware that the change in foeus of the product range would also necessarily involve a drastic change in the type of final customer, in distribution channels, and in the marketing resources to be used to promote our products. When they launched the first new-generation lighting elements on the market, the electrical goods wholesaicr-stockholders neither bought nor distributed technical architectural lighting products. These were too sophisticated, designed for specific applications and slow-selling, and their installation required a prior analysis to ensure their match with specific lighting needs, circumstances or environments. The Prescribe™ Technical architectural lighting was promoted by persuading (he prescribers to use them. Within the field of technical lighting, a prescriber could be an
Case 7: Troil-AEG
architect, an interior decorator, a shop window designer, an engineer or technician specializing in lighting, an engineering firm, and so on. When faced with a lighting requirement (a hotel, a stadium, a modern shop, a hospital, etc.), the preseriher studied the lighting needs (light intensity, eolorimetry, possible combinations within the surroundings, etc.) and decided the type, quantity, character IN tics and location of each lighting point to he installed in order to obtain the desired decorative and lighting results. In the case of new buildings, it was vital to incline the prescribe! in favour of a certain light brand and model while the architectural design was still on the drawing-board. Roeasalbas explains: The prescriber was a new factor to be reckoned with during the sales process carried out by JFP .. Until then, we had not taken any steps to influence their decisions because, given the relative simplicity of our products, it was simply not necessary .. We realized that the image they had of us - if they had any at all - would be something like that of SEAT, when it was manufacturing the '600', while now we had decided to make Mercedes-Benz! .. Perhaps at that time we might have given other strategic responses to our competitors, such as trying to cut them short by lowering prices or creating a second 'fighting' brand name but the fact is we consciously didn't. This does not mean, however, that we did not fight hard to defend our position in the standard product market, as we were fully aware that the bulk of our sales were precisely composed - and, at the close of 1991, they still are - of these standard products. Meanwhile the Madrid and Barcelona representatives had secretly come to an agreement in 1988 to propose a change in their role. They wanted to be fully independent and exclusive distributors in their geographical area, buying set quantities and reselling the product on their own account, thus earning a margin instead of a commission. The proposal had a mixed reception from the four manufacturers in the alliance. The transformer manufacturer accepted the proposed change, but the cable manufacturer not only rejected the proposal but also cancelled the agency agreement with them. Rocasalbas turned down the proposal but continued to work with them, trying to get them to start promoting to prescribcrs while continuing to sell the standard lighting elements. To help them they took on four middle-aged, well-groomed women (two in Madrid and two in Barcelona). These women would start to contact prescribcrs, introducing them to the company and telling them that JFP was entering the technical architectural lighting market. Said Rocasalbas: We were not yet out 'project hunting'. But we soon realized that 'good grooming' was not enough. We had to be able to solve the preservers' problem or at least to be able to provide them with all the necessary means for them to solve it themselves. This included providing prescribers with all the necessary technical data and free product samples, and having a showroom where they could handle the lights and test lighting effects. The selling process was very complex because the final decision on the light brand and model to be installed depends not only on the prescriber but also on the contractor installing the entire electrical and lighting system and, in the final analysis, on the building's owner, as the person footing the bill.
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308 • Chapter 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Behaviour JFP managed slowly to penetrate the technical architectural lighting market, selling by promoting and carrying out projects for the prescriber. However, in 1990, this market only accounted for ahout 5 per cent of JFP's total sales, and marketing and sales costs had increased substantially. To speed up the change process, in 1991 JFP decided to terminate their relationship with the Barcelona and Madrid representatives and open a sales office with showroom. Its Barcelona branch - responsible for promotion and sales through Catalonia - had two sales teams. One team of three full-time employed salesmen covered the electrical goods wholesaler-stockists, while the other focused on speciality retailers, mainly selling them the more 'standard' product range. By the end of 1991, the other Barcelona-Catalonia sales team targeted the prescription market. It had three salaried salesmen who visited prospective customers and another person who drew up the design projects. The first team was much more profitable than the second as, at the end of 1991, sales of standard products continued to account for about 80 per cent of the company's total sales. There was a possibility that, in the future, JFP would open similar fully owned branches in other large Spanish cities. The decision would depend on two factors: first, the degree of sales and financial success achieved by the two JFP branches already operating (Barcelona and Madrid);and second, the current 'old' representatives' attitude and behaviour. They had to show their willingness and effectiveness in promoting the new generation of architectural technical lighting products. At the end of 1991, Javier Rocasalbas commented: Perhaps I'm wrong, but I think that even the minimally observant person had realized that lighting in houses and apartments, offices, shops, public areas, etc., had become increasingly sophisticated. Indeed, lighting was becoming an increasingly important part of the building's or premises' aesthetics. The challenge for us, then, is to give Troll lamps the technical capacity to contribute lighting solutions, on the one hand, and to be able to integrate themselves aesthetically with their surroundings, on the other hand. But we also have to explain this to prescribers, without forgetting to 'close the loop', that is, acting actively and positively on the contractor and on the building's owner or his purchasing manager. Any one of these people, at any particular time, can act for or against a type, brand or model of lamp. It is crucial to identify new projects at an early stage, in order to mature the final decision in our favour. This selling and 'maturing' process can take several months, with a significant investment in time. And even with all that, we only manage to get one out of every ten projects we bid for! To put it another way, when we 'mature' a project, we are not selling 'lighting elements'. We are selling 'a particular lighting solution'. In 1991 the company had spent a total of about PtalOO million in advertising expenses, brochures and product catalogues, and attending trade fairs. This amount includes the cost of similar expenses by TrollFrance, SA. Internationalization in mid-1990 Philippe Martinez became Troll-France, SA's new general manager. He was of Spanish descent, but was very knowledgeable about the French lighting market. lie quickly established a team of six salaried sales reps selling only Troll products. They had two tasks: to 'sell in' to the whole-
Case 7: Troil-ARG • 309 saler-stockists and to promote to preseribers. As in Spain, they never sold directly to contractors or to end customers. By the end of 1991, JFP re-evaluated its French venture. Troll-France had used Pta250 million start-up funds and between 1988 and 1991 had had Ptal20 million. 'From a strictly economic point of view, the economic effort undertaken in France was highly questionable,' commented Miguel Tey. 'But,' he continued, 'if we had not taken the good (even if expensive) decision to go out of Spain at the time the Spanish economy was buoyant, we would find ourselves in a difficult position today, when the Spanish market is stagnant.' The Contacts and Negotiations with AEG Dr Kappler of AFX! made contact with JFP in April 1990. AEG belongs to the Daimler-Benz Group. AEG-LT specialized in manufacturing lighting elements, particularly fluorescent strip lighting. Its product range included almost all categories of technical lighting for indoors or outdoors, the only exception being accent lighting. Its sales were Pta23 billion in 1990, twothirds indoor-lighting elements and the remainder outdoor lighting. From the start, Dr Kappler's proposal was crystal-clear, in that he was offering JFP a double contract for reciprocal distribution. AEG-LT did not have a range of technical decorative indoor accent lighting elements. Its present customers in Germany were asking for this type of lighting element, but they did not want to develop this new line themselves as the investment required would be too large. They preferred an agreement with a company like JFP that had already developed such a product line. The German company's managers had been watching the development of JFP since 1987, mainly at the international trade fairs, and considered that the company was following a line that could be interesting for them. Initially, JFP's management, especially Miguel, was very wary of starting discussions. The early contacts were fairly informal: visits to each other's factory, lunches together, and so on. However, they picked up pace and consolidated significantly when Dr Kappler transferred to another area and Dr Herbert Willmy became the business area's new president. Until then, Dr Willmy had been the area's marketing and sales director. 'Willmy is overwhelmingly straightforward and clear. He is a person who immediately wins you over with his humanity and honesty,' reports Rocasalbas. The negotiator for AEG was Willmy in person. The negotiators for JFP were Miguel Tey and Javier Rocasalbas, who explains: 'The negotiation was very much based on the human relationship between both parties and was by no means plain sailing because Miguel had difficulties in following the English.' Apparently AEG-LT's managers were attracted by JFP's advanced and original design, goad in-house and subcontract industrial production capacity, and good range of indoor accent lighting elements - all in an effectively managed and economically sound company. Rocasalbas commented: 1 think that they were aware that there was only 'an embryo' AEG distributor in Spain and France. However, even so, we were perhaps the best distributor available to them. Sometimes, the negotiations were even fun. For example, sometimes we were wary and even expressed fears that, should we sign an agreement with AEG-LT. somehow we would be putting ourselves in their power and that 'if they sneezed, we could catch a double pneumonia'. On these occasions, in order to get the negotiations out of
310 • C!iapcer 7 Business Markets and Business Buyer Eichavimir
the rut, Willmy suggested that we do a kind of role-playing, challenging us to put ourselves in his place, as if Miguel and I were the managers of the AEG-LT business area, and try to identify decisions or actions that could harm ,IFP, As soon as we said something, each time Willmy would come up with the defensive or protective coiintcniieasurc that .IFF could take, thus effectively knocking down all our objections. Willmy caught on very quickly to JFP's way of operating and doing business. The possibility of obtaining a high-volume and almost instantaneous distribution of Troll lighting elements in Germany, through AEG-LT's sales network of about 70 sales engineers attracted JFP. Also, the link with the Daimler-Benz Group, ;md through them Deutsche Bank, could lead to 'captive' or induced safes. The other companies in the Group presumably gave purchasing priority to AEG-LT. They also hoped that their association with AEG-LT would be a decisive factor in helping them rapidly to obtain the 'VDE' certifications in Germany for their lighting elements. In addition, wherever AEG had subsidiaries in Europe, JF1' could sell through them its accent lighting elements. However, if JFP managers considered that some or any of AEG's subsidiaries were not adequate for this task, they could freely choose any other distributor or marketing channel. JFP also saw big advantages in distributing AEG-LT's products in Spain and France: Obviously, the AEG brand, and its German origin, count for a lot. We realised that AEG-LT's products would be positioned in the highquality, high-price segment in Spain, so perhaps we might not achieve high sales volumes or high margins for JFP as importers-distributors. However, it was clear to us that the 'partnership' with AEG-LT would give prestige to JFP in Spain and would help us consolidate the image of the Troll products and our image as a company. This would help us to gain easier access to prescribers. Also, it would obviously help us complete the product range we eould offer in France and Spain, Now, we would be able to quote virtually all the lighting elements needed for an entire new building or for a complete architectural project. In other words, we would have a complete product range, and we could suggest a solution for any technical lighting need, in the broadest sense. Rocasalbas expected that distributing AEG-LT lighting elements in Spain and France would not require any more salespeople, but would need higher stocks and more warehouse space. Negotiating the agreement had not been without its problems and there had even been moments when it seemed that negotiations would break down. One of them concerned setting each company's sales targets and purchase commitments for the other company's products. Another difficulty appeared when Miguel Tey said that he would not stop supplying Troll lamps to L'lrich Settler, an electrical contractor with a retail store in Stuttgart. He had been JFP's importer-distributor since 1989 and had bought about DM1 million worth in 1991. Miguel did not want to lose this sales volume and thought it would be wise to keep Settler on, just in case the agreement with AEG did not happen or did not work out properly. Reflections before the Signing Everything seemed taken care of, but there were still a number of points that worried Miguel. On one hand, there was the 'big guy will eat the little
Case 7: Troll-AEG
guy' complex. He felt that if AEG's purchases were to attain very high volumes, the Germans would have too much power over the Catalans and would end up taking them over. Was this a real danger? How could he prevent it? Another point was that he did not know to what extent he should commit himself to this alliance. Should it be a purely commercial alliance or should it include other aspects? How could they get maximum benefit from the allianceV What other synergies were there that might be yet untapped? He also wondered what he should do with Settler, the (ierman distributor, and whether AEG had any kind of hidden agenda1. It was late afternoon on 21 January 1991 when Miguel got up, went to his desk and started to read, once again, the contracts that had to be signed the next day. It seemed to him that for both companies, the 'Spain sells to Germany' flow or relationship was much more important than the 'Germany sells to Spain and France' relationship. Miguel estimated the weighting of the former as 90 and that of the latter at perhaps only 10.
QUESTIONS 1. What are the chief strengths and weaknesses of the Catalan company? How and why did they change over time? 2. What were the vital strategic shifts of JFP and what stimulated them? 3. What are the roles in the buying centre for lamps towards the end of the case? How does JFP seek to influence people in the buying process? 4. How does the market vary across Europe? What mistakes were made in Spain and France? 5. What is JFP looking for in its joint ventures? d. Would you recommend the company to sign the deal with AEG-LT?
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Market Information and Marketing Research CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the importance of information to the company. Define the marketing information system and discuss its parts. Describe the four steps in the marketing research process. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of collecting information. Discuss the main methods for estimating current market demand. Explain specific techniques that companies use to forecast future demand.
Preview Case Qantas: Taking Off in Tomorrow's Market QANTAS, AUSTRALIA'S INTERNATIONAL AIRLINE, WAS experiencing a demand bonanza. Its market area in the Pacific Basin contained some of the fastestgrowing economies in the world - including Australia, China, Japan and the newly industrializing countries of Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and Thailand, The area's growth in air travel far exceeded world averages. Industry forecasts suggest that Pacific Basin air travel would grow
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at 10-14 per cent per year through 1998. By the year 2000 the area will have a 40 per cent -share of all international air passenger traffic. Such explosive growth presents a huge opportunity for Qantas and the other airlines serving the Pacific Basin. However, it also presents some serious headaches. To take advantage of the growing demand, Qantas must first forecast it accurately and prepare to meet it. Air-travel demand has many dimensions. Qantas must forecast how many and what kinds of people will he travelling, where they will want to go and when. It must project total demand as well as demand in each specific market it intends to serve. And Qantas must estimate what share of this total demand it can capture under alternative marketing strategies and in various competitive circumstances. Moreover, it must forecast demand not just for next year, but also for the next two years, five years and even further into the future. Forecasting air-travel demand is no easy task. A host of factors aft'eet how often people will travel and where they will go. To make accurate demand forecasts, Qantas must first anticipate changes in the factors that influence demand: worldwide and country-hy-country economic conditions, demographic characteristics, population growth, political developments, technological advances, competitive activity and many other factors. Qantas has little control over many of these factors. Demand can shift uuiekly and dramatically. For example, relative economic growth and political stability in Japan, Australia and die other Pacific Basin countries have caused a virtual explosion of demand for air travel there. Ever-increasing numbers of tourists from around the world arc visiting these areas. In Australia, for instance, foreign tourism more than doubled between 1984 and 1988, and could triple between 1988 and the year 2000. Also, people from the Pacific Basin countries are themselves travelling more. For example, almost 12 million Japanese took holidays abroad
Preview Cane: Qantas • 315
in 1996, a 10 per cent increase over the previous year. Pampered business travellers bolstered the profitability of airlines in the region, but most new travellers are non-business people. By the turn of the century fewer than one in five passengers worldwide will be flying for business reasons — and many of those will be sitting in the economy section. Forecasting demand in the face of such drastic shifts can be difficult. There was also talk about southern Asia's boom going to bust. China's regaining Hong Kong had gone smoothly, but there were warning signals that the economies of some of the newly industrialized countries in the region were over heating. What if the bubble bursts? To make things even more complicated, Qantas must forecast more than just demand. The airline must also anticipate the many factors that can affect its ability to meet that demand. For example, what airport facilities will be available and how will this affect Qantas? Will there be enough .skilled labour to staff and maintain its aircraft? In the Pacific Basin, as demand has skyrocketed, the support system has not. A shortage of runways and airport terminal space already limits the number of flights Qantas can schedule. As a result, Qantas may decide to buy fewer but larger planes. Fewer planes would require fewer crews, and larger planes could hold more passengers at one time, which might make flights more profitable. Competition in the region is hotting up too. Efficient non-Asian carriers, such as American Airlines, British Airways, United and Virgin, are attacking the region's markets and slashing fares in the process. Meanwhile, new local competitors, such as Taiwan's EVA Airways and Malaysia's Air Asia, are cutting into the market. Singapore Airlines and Cathay Pacific are two of the world's most profitable airlines and are fighting to hold on to their strong positions in the market. Singapore Airlines already has 62 aircraft including 42 Boeing 747 jumbos. It plans to buy at least 50 more jets - all 747s or large wide-body Airbuses, Qantas bases many important decisions on its forecasts. Perhaps the most important decision involves aircraft purchases. To meet burgeoning demand, Qantas knows that it will need more planes. But how many more planes? At about A>S'200 million for each new Boeing 747-400, ordering even a few too many planes can be very costly. On the other hand, if Qantas buys too few planes, it has few short-run solutions. It usually takes about two years to get delivery of a new plane. If Qantas overestimates demand by even a few percentage points, it will have costly overcapacity. If it underestimates demand, it could miss out on profit opportunities and disappoint customers who prefer to fly Qantas, resulting in long-term losses of sales and goodwill. Airlines have got these numbers badly wrong in the past, resulting in thousands of redundant jets parked in the deserts of the United States. Besides rapid growth, Qantas needs to know about the changing nature of demand in the region. The declining proportion ot business passengers means airlines are fighting harder for them, by offering not just cheaper fares but also extra service. In Europe, where the battle for the business traveller is well developed, Lufthansa has completed a huge study to find out what its business traveller wants. More leg and elbow room said most travellers, but others want separate check-ins and passport controls. Fine, but all these options cost money, so what is the best set of benefits to offer and are the needs to be standardized across the region? There are even more unknowns about the needs of the hugely growing non-business market. What do these new flyers want and what is the best way to look after them economically? Ultimately, tor Qantas, the forecasting problem is more than a matter of temporary gains or losses of customer satisfaction and sales - it's a matter of survival. Thus Qantas has a lot flying on the accuracy of its forecasts.1
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QUESTIONS 1 Why is market forecasting so important ro airlines like Cathay Pacific and Qantas? 2. Is it realistic for Qantas to conduct a single forecast for passenger traffic in the region, or should it base its projections on several separate forecasts? If so, what separate forecasts should be conducted?
3. Does the past steady growth of the economies in the region mean it is reasonable to project similar levels of growth for the next decade? 4. Are Lufthansa's findings from its study likely to apply in south-cast Asia? What is likely to make customer research in southern Asia more complicated than in Europe? 5. What techniques should Qantas use to forecast overall demand over the next ten years? How should it estimate what customers1 tastes are likely to be over the next decade? 6. If Qantas's conclusion is that the market is uncertain, how should it proceed in acquiring new airliners?
Introduction To carry out marketing analysis, planning, implementation and control, managers need information. Like Qantas, they need information about market demand, customers, competitors, dealers and other forces in the marketplace. One marketing executive put it this way: 'To manage a business well is to manage its future; and to manage the future is to manage information. 2 Increasingly, marketers are viewing information as not just an input for making better decisions, but also a marketing asset that gives competitive advantage of strategic importance.3 During the twentieth century, most companies have been small and have known their customers at first hand. Managers picked up marketing information by being around people, observing them and asking questions. However, many factors have increased the need for more and better information. As companies become national or international in scope, they need more information on larger, more distant markets. As incomes increase and buyers become more selective, sellers need better information about how buyers respond to different products and appeals. As sellers use more complex marketing approaches and face more competition, they need information on the effectiveness of their marketing tools. Finally, in today's rapidly changing environments, managers need up-to-date information to make timely decisions. The supply of information has also increased greatly. John Neisbitt suggests that the world is undergoing a 'mega-shift' from an industrial to an informationbased economy.4 He found that more than 65 per cent of the US workforce now work at producing or processing information, compared to only 17 per cent in 1950. Using improved computer systems and other technologies, companies can now provide information in great quantities. Many of today's managers sometimes receive too much information. For example, one study found that with companies offering all the information now available through supermarket scanners, a brand manager gets one million to one billion new numbers each week.5 As Neisbitt points out: 'Running out of information is not a problem, but drowning in it is,'(>
Developing Information * 317
Figure 8.1
The marketing information system
Marketers frequently complain that they lack enough information of the right kind or have too much of the throng kind. Regarding the spread of information throughout the company, they say that it takes great effort to locate even simple facts. Subordinates may withhold information that they believe will reflect badly on their performance. Often, important information arrives too late to be useful, or on-time information is not accurate. Companies have greater capacity to provide managers with information, but have often not made good use of it. Many companies are now studying their managers' information needs and designing information systems to meet those needs.
The Marketing Information System A marketing information system (MIS) consists of people, equipment and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate and distribute needed, timely and accurate information to marketing decision makers. Figure 8.1 illustrates the marketing information system concept. The MIS begins and ends with marketing managers. First, it interacts with these managers to assess their information needs. Next, it develops the needed information from internal company records, marketing intelligence activities and the marketing research process. Information analysis processes the information to make it more useful. Finally, the MIS distributes information to managers in the right form at the right time to help them in marketing planning, implementation and control.
Developing Information The information needed by marketing managers comes from internal company records, marketing intelligence and marketing research. The information
marketing information system (MIS) People, equipment and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate and distribute needed, timely and accurate information to marketing decision maker a.
318 • Chapters Market Information and Marketing Research analysis system then processes this information to make it more useful for managers.
Internal Records
internal records information Information gathered from sources within the company to evaluate marketing performances and to detect marketing problems and opportunities.
Most marketing managers use internal records and reports regularly, especially for making day-to-day planning, implementation and control decisions. Internal records information consists of information gathered from sources within the company to evaluate marketing performance and to detect marketing problems and opportunities. The company's accounting department prepares financial statements and keeps detailed records of sales, orders, costs and cash flows. Manufacturing reports on production schedules, shipments and inventories. The sales force reports on reseller reactions and competitor activities. The eustomer service department provides information on customer satisfaction or service problems. Research studies done for one department may provide useful information for several others. Managers can use information gathered from these and other sources within the company to evaluate performance and to detect problems and opportunities. Here are examples of how companies use internal records information in making better marketing decisions:7 Office World offers shoppers a free membership card when they make their first purchase at their store. The eard entitles shoppers to discounts on selected items, but also provides valuable information to the chain. Since Office World encourages customers to use their card with each purchase, it can track what customers buy, where and when. Using this information, it can track the effectiveness of promotions, trace customers who have defected to other stores and keep in touch with them if they relocate. Istel is a cross-fertilization scheme set up by AT & T in Europe. The system helps retailers share information about customers. Under the programme customers join the Istel club, which gives them discounts when buying a range of products from member stores. AT & T estimates that its card will save the average customer £180 a year. The retailers then use the information to build databases and to target incentives to valuable customers. 'The grocer may like to know who is a high spender in the scheme but is not shopping with them,' says Ruth Kemp of Istel. 'Then they can offer incentives to use their store.'
marketing intelligence Everyday information about developments in che marketing environment that helps managers prepare and adjus! marketing plans.
Information from internal records is usually quicker and cheaper to get than information from other sources, but it also presents some problems. Because internal information was for other purposes, it may be incomplete or in the wrong form for making marketing decisions. For example, accounting department sales and cost data used for preparing financial statements need adapting for use in evaluating product, sales force or channel performance. In addition, the many different areas of a large company produce great amounts of information, and keeping track of it all is difficult. The marketing information system must gather, organize, process and index this mountain of information so that managers can find it easily and get it quickly.
Marketing Intelligence Marketing intelligence is everyday information about developments in the marketing environment that helps managers prepare and adjust marketing plans.
Dcvdoping Information • 319 The marketing intelligence system determines the intelligence needed, collects it by searching the environment and delivers it to marketing managers who need it. Marketing intelligence comes from many sources. Much intelligence is from the company's personnel - executives, engineers and scientists, purchasing agents and the sales force. But company people are often busy and fail to pass on important information. The company must 'sell' its people on their importance as intelligence gatherers, train them to spot new developments and urge them to report intelligence hack to the company. The company must also persuade suppliers, resellers and customers to pass along important intelligence. Some information on competitors conies from what they say about themselves in annual reports, speeches, press releases and advertisements. The company can also learn about competitors from what others say about them in business publications and at trade shows. Or the company can watch what competitors do - buying and analyzing competitors' products, monitoring their sales and cheeking for new patents. Companies also buy intelligence information from out.side suppliers. Dun & Bradstreet is the world's largest research company with branches in 40 countries and a turnover of SI.26 billion. Its largest subsidiary is Nielsen, which selis data on brand shares, retail prices and percentages of stores stocking different brands. Its Info a Act Workstation offers companies the chance to analyze data from three sources on the PCs: Retail Index, which monitors consumer sales and in-store conditions; Key Account Scantrack, a weekly analysis of sales, price elasticity and promotional effectiveness; and Homesean, a new consumer panel. Alliances between marketing research companies allow access to pan-European research. Other big international research companies are WPP; Taylor Nelson, which owns AGB; GfK; MAI, which owns MOP; and Infratest. The globalization of markets has led both large and small firms to form alliances in order to gain better international coverage and wider services, Taylor Nelson's AGB has joined with Information Resources Inc. of the United States to strengthen their position as international suppliers of retail audit and scanner data.' The services of these and other agencies now provide over 500 accessible computer databases: Doing business in Germany? Check out CompuServe's German Company Library of financial and product information on over 48,000 Germanowned firms. Want biographical sketches of key executives? Punch up Dun & Bradstreet Financial Profiles and Company Reports. Demographic data? Today's Associated Press news wire reports? A list of active trademarks? It's all available from on-line databases.9 Marketing intelligence can work not only for, but also against a company. Companies must sometimes take steps to protect themselves from the snooping of competitors. For example, Kellogg's had treated the public to tours of its plants since 1906, but recently dosed its newly upgraded plant to outsiders to prevent competitors from getting intelligence on its high-tech equipment. In Japan corporate intelligence is part of the industrial culture. Everyone from assembly-line workers to top executives considers it their duty to filter intelligence about the competition back to management. Western companies are less active, although most of America's Fortune 500 now have in-house corporate intelligence units. Businesses are becoming increasingly aware of the need both to gather information and to protect what they have. In its Bangkok offices one European organization has a huge poster outside its lavatory saying: 'Wash and hush up! You never know who's listening! Keep our secrets secret.'1' Some companies set up an office to collect and circulate marketing intelligence. The staff scan relevant publications, summarize important news and send news
320 • Chapter 8 Market Information and Marketing Research bulletins to marketing managers. They develop a file of intelligence information and help managers evaluate new information. These services greatly improve the quality of information available to marketing managers. The methods used to gather competitive information range from the ridiculous to the illegal. Managers routinely shred documents because wastepaper baskets can be an information source. Other firms have uncovered more sinister devices such as Spycatcher's TFR recording system that 'automatically interrogates telephones and faxes. Also a range of tiny microphones.' These and other methods appear in Marketing Highlight 8.1.'
Marketing Research
marketing research The junction that links the consumer, customer and public to the marketer through information information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; to generate, refine and evaluate marketing actions; to monitor marketing performance; and to improve understanding of the marketing process.
Managers cannot always wait for information to arrive in bits and pieces from the marketing intelligence system. They often require formal studies of specific situations. For example, Apple Computer wants to know how many and what kinds of people or companies will buy its new ultralight personal computer. Or a Dutch pet product firm needs to know the potential market for slimming tablets for dogs. What percentage of dogs are overweight, do their owners worry about it, and will they give the pill Co their podgy pooches?1^ In these situations, the marketing intelligence system will not provide the detailed information needed. Because managers normally do not have the skills or time to obtain the information on their own. they need formal marketing research. Marketing research is the function linking the consumer, customer and public to the marketer through information - information used: to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; to generate, refine and evaluate marketing actions; to monitor marketing performance; and to improve understanding of the marketing process.13 Marketing researchers specify the information needed to address marketing issues, design the method for collecting information, manage and implement the data collection process, analyze the results and communicate the findings and their implications. Marketing researchers engage in a wide variety of activities, ranging from analyses of market potential and market shares to studies of customer satisfaction and purchase intentions. Every marketer needs research. A company can conduct marketing research in its research department or have some or all of it done outside. Although most large companies have their own marketing research departments, they often use outside firms to do special research tasks or special studies. A company with no research department will have to buy the services of research firms. Many people think of marketing research as a lengthy, formal process carried out by large marketing companies. But many small businesses and non-profit organizations also use marketing research. Almost any organization can find informal, low-cost alternatives to the formal and complex marketing research techniques used by research experts in large firms.
The Marketing Research Process The marketing research process (see Figure 8.2) consists of four steps: defining the problem and research objectives; developing the research plan; implementing the research plan; and interpreting and reporting the findings,
• Defining the Problem and Research Objectives The marketing manager and the researcher must work closely together to define the problem carefully and must agree on the research objectives. The manager
Developing Information * 32
Figure 8.2
The marketing research process
understands the decision for which information is needed; the researcher understands marketing research and how to obtain the information. Managers must know enough about marketing research to help in the planning and in the interpretation of research results, if they know little about marketing research, they may obtain the wrong information, aecept wrong conclusions, or ask for information that costs too much. Experienced marketing researchers who understand the manager's problem also need involvement at this stage. The researcher must be able to help the manager define the problem and to suggest ways that research can help the manager make better decisions. Defining the problem and research objectives is often the hardest step in the research process. The manager may know that something is wrong, without knowing the specific causes. For example, managers of a discount retail store chain hastily decided that poor advertising caused falling sales, so they ordered research to test the company's advertising. It puzzled the managers when the research showed that current advertising was reaching the right people with the right message. It turned out that the chain stores were not delivering what the advertising promised. Careful problem definition would have avoided the cost and delay of doing advertising research. It would have suggested research on the real problem of consumer reactions to the products, service and prices offered in the chains stores. After the problem has been defined carefully, the manager and researcher must set the research objectives. A marketing research project might have one of three types of objective. The objective of exploratory research is to gather preliminary information that will help define the problem and suggest hypotheses. The objective of descriptive research is to describe things such as the market potential for a product or the demographics and attitvides of consumers who buy the product. The objective of causal research is to test hypotheses about cause-andcff'ect relationships. For example, would a 10 per cent cut in CD prices increase sales sufficiently to offset the lost margin? Managers often start with exploratory research and later follow with descriptive or causal research. The statement of the problem and research objectives guides the entire research process. The manager and researcher should put the statement in writing to be certain that they agree on the purpose and expected results of the research.
» Developing the Research Plan The second step of the marketing research process calls for determining the information needed, developing a plan for gathering it efficiently and presenting the plan to marketing management. The plan outlines sources of existing data and explains the specific research approaches, contact methods, sampling plans and instruments that researchers will use to gather new data.
exploratory- research Marketing research Co gather preliminary information that will help better to define problems and suggest hypotheses. descriptive research Marketing research to better describe marketing problems, situations or markets, suc/i as the market potential for a product or the demographics and attitudes e/consumers, causal research Marketing research to test hypotheses about cans e - and-effect relationships.
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Snooping on Competitors
Marketing Highlight 8.1
European firms lag behind their Japanese and American competitors in gathering competitive intelligence. In Japanese companies it is a long-established practice, for, as Mitsui's corporate motto says: 'Information is the life blood of the company.' In thy United States, competitive intelligence gathering has grown dramatieaHy as more and more companies need to know what their competitors are doing. Such wellknown companies as Ford, Motorola, Kodak, Gillette, Avon, Kraft, Mitsubishi and the 'Big Six' accounting firms arc known to be busy snooping on their competitors, TMA, FC1 and Kirk Tyson International specialize in this sort of business. The techniques they use to collect intelligence fall into four main groups.
Getting Information from Published Materials and Public Documents Keeping track of seemingly meaningless published information can provide competitor intelligence. For instance, the types of people sought in help-wanted ads can indicate something about a competitor's new strategies and products. Government agencies are another good source. For example, according to Fortune: Although it is often illegal for a company to photograph a competitor's plant from the air .. Aerial photos often are on file with geological survey or environmental protection agencies. These arc public documents, available for a nominal fee. According to Leonard Fuld. founder of FCl; 'in some countries the government is a rare font of information .. France has the Minitel, in the US we have an opus of information databases and networks.' Getting Information by Observing Competitors or Analyzing Physical Evidence Companies can get to know competitors better by buying their products or examining other physical
evidence. An increasingly important form of competitive intelligence is benchmarking, taking apart competitors' products and imitating or improving upon their best features. Benchmarking has helped JGB keep ahead in earthmoving equipment. The company takes apart its international competitors' products, dissecting and examining them in detail. JGB also probed the manufacturing operations, the types of machine tools used, their speeds, manning levels, labour costs, quality control and testing procedures, and raw material. It built up a profile of all its main competitors' operations and performance ratios against which to benchmark. In this way, the company knew the extent to which competitors could vary their prices, what their strengths and weaknesses were, and how JCB could exploit these data to its advantage. Beyond looking at competitors' products, companies can examine many other types of physical evidence: In the absence of better information on market share and the volume of product competitors are shipping, companies have measured the rust on rails ot' railroad sidings to their competitors' plant or have counted the tractor-trailers leaving loading bays. Some companies even rifle their competitors' rubbish: Once it has left the competitors' premises, refuse is legally considered abandoned property. While some companies now shred the paper coming out of their design labs, they often neglect to do this for all most revealing refuse from the marketing or public relations departments. Avon hired private detectives to paw through Mary Kay Cosmetics' rubbish skips. Although an outraged Mary Kay sued to get its rubbish back, Avon claimed that it had done nothing illegal. The skips had been located in a public car park and Avon had videotapes to prove it.
Developing Information
Getting Information from People who Do Business with Competitors Key customers can keep the company informed about competitors and their products: For example, a while back Gillette told a large account the date on which it planned to begin selling its new Good News disposable razor. The distributor promptly called Bic and told it about the impending product launch. Bic put on a crash programme and was able to start selling its razor shortly after Gillette did. Intelligence can also be gathered by infiltrating customers' business operations: Companies may provide their engineers free of charge to customers .. The close, cooperative relationship that the engineers on loan cultivate with the customers' design staff often enables them to learn what new products competitors are pitching. Getting Information from Recruits and Competitors* Employees Companies can obtain intelligence through job interviews or from conversations with competitors' employees. When they interview people for jobs, some companies pay special attention to those who have worked for competitors, even temporarily. Companies send engineers to conferences and trade shows to question competitors' technical people. Companies sometimes advertise and hold interviews for jobs that don't exist in order to entice competitors' employees to spill the beans. In the United States one of the most common ploys is to telephone competitors' employees and ask direct and indirect questions. 'The rule of thumb,' says Jonathan Lax, founder of TMA, 'is to target employees a level below where you think you should start, because that person often knows just as much as his or her senior, and they
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are not as frequently asked or wary.' Secretaries, receptionists and switchboard operators regularly give away information inadvertently. One European company is now being accused of beating the Americans at their own game. When Spanish-born Jose' Ignacio Lopez de Arriotua defected from General Motors to Volkswagen to be its new purchasing and production chief, he took seven GM executives with him. Why Europe is Different Niame Fine, founder of Protce Data, believes there are two main differences between US and European companies. Language and cultural blocks limit cross-border intelligence gathering. Approaching competitors' employees is a subtle business and people are often put on their guard if approached by someone from a different country. She also says Europeans have greater loyalty than their job-hopping American counterparts. Although most of these techniques are legal and some are considered to be shrewdly competitive, many involve questionable ethics. The company should take advantage of publicly available information, but avoid practices that might be considered illegal or unethical. A company does not have to break the law or accepted codes of ethics to get good intelligence. So far European businesses 'do as they would be done by' and linger at the ethical end of the spectrum of competitive intelligence. Will they be able to stay there?
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DETERMINING INFORMATION NEEDS. Research objectives need translating into specific information needs.
Bolswessanen, the Dutch food and drinks company, decides to conduct research to find out how consumers would react to a new breakfast cereal aimed at the adult market. Across Europe young health-conscious people are abandoning croissants in France, rolls in Belgium and lonely espresso in Italy. Since Nestle and General Mills set up Cereal Partners Worldwide as a joint venture, they have been very active in the market and the project has started to develop. The European breakfast cereal market has been growing fast, but own labels dominate the adult sector.14 Can Bolswessanen successfully compete with Kellogg's, the market leader, and the aggressive new competitor, Cereal Partners Worldwide? The company's research might cail for the following specific information: •
• • • •
The demographic, economic and lifestyle characteristics of current breakfast cereal users. (How do social and demographic trends affect the breakfast cereal market?) Consumer-usage patterns for cereals: how much do they eat, where and when? (Will all the family eat the cereal or does each family member have their favourite?) Retailer reactions to the new product. (Failure to get retailer support could hurt its sales.) Consumer attitudes towards the new product. (Will consumers switch from own brands and is the product attractive enough to compete with Kellogg's?) Forecasts of sales of the new product. (Will the new packaging increase Bolswessanen's profits?)
Bolswessanen's managers will need this and many other types of information to decide whether to introduce the new product.
secondary da tii Information that already exists somewhere, having been collected for another purpose. primary data Information collected for [he specific purpose at hand.
GATHERING SECONDARY INFORMATION. TO meet the manager's information needs, the researcher can gather secondary data, primary data or both. Secondary data is information that already exists somewhere, having been collected for another purpose. Primary data consist of information collected for the specific purpose at hand. Researchers usually start by gathering secondary data. Table 8.1 shows the many secondary data sources, including internal and external sources.' Secondary data are usually quicker and cheaper to obtain than primary data. For example, a visit to the library might provide all the information Bolswessanen needs on cereal usage, at almost no cost. A study to collect primary information might take weeks or months and cost a lot. Also, secondary sources can sometimes provide data that an individual company cannot collect on its own - information that either is not directly available or would be too expensive to collect. For example, it would be too expensive for Bolswessanen to conduct a continuing retail store audit to find out about the market shares, prices and displays of competitors' brands. But it can buy Neilsen's Scantrack service. Secondary data also have problems. The needed information may not exist researchers can rarely obtain all the data they need from secondary sources. For example, Bolswessanen will not find existing information about consumer reactions to a new product that it has not yet placed on the market. Even when data arc found, they might not be very usable. The researcher must evaluate
Developing Information • 325
Table 8.1
Sources of secondary data
Internal sources Internal sources include company profit and loss statements, balance sheets, sales figures, sales call reports, invoices, inventory records and prior research reports. Government publications Statistical Abstract, usually updated annually, provides summary data on demographic, economic, social and other aspects of the economy and society. Industrial Outlook provides projections of industrial activity by industry and includes data on production, sales, shipments, employment, etc. Marketing Information Guide provides a monthly annotated bibliography of marketing information. Other government puhlications include the Annual Survey of Manufacturers; Business Statistics; Census of Manufacturers; Census of Population; Census of Retail Trade, Wholesale Trade, and Selected Service Industries; Census of Transportation; Federal Reserve Bulletin; Monthly Labor Review, Survey of Current Business; and Vital Statistics Report. Periodicals and books Business Periodicals Index, a monthly, lists business articles appearing in a wide variety of business publications. Standard & Poor's Industry Surveys provide updated statistics and analyses of industries. Moody's Manuals provide financial data and names of executives in big companies. Encyclopaedia of Associations provides information on every large trade and professional association in the United States. Marketing journals include (he Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research,.Journal of Consumer Research and International Journal, of Research in Marketing. Useful trade magazines include Advertising Age, Chain Store Age, Progressive Grocer, Sales and Marketing Management, Stores, Marketing Week and Campaign. Useful general business magazines include Business Week, Fortune, Forbes, The Economist and Harvard Business Review. Commercial data Here are just a few of the dozens of commercial research houses selling data to subscribers: AC. Nielsen Company provides supermarket scanner data on sales, market share and retail prices (Scantrack), data on household purchasing (Scantraek National Electronic Household Panel), data on television audiences (Nielsen National Television Index) and others. IMS International provides reports on the movement of Pharmaceuticals, hospital laboratory supplies, animal health products and personal care products. Information Resources, Inc. provides supermarket scanner data for tracking grocery product movement (InfoScan) and single-source data collection (BehaviorSean). MRB Group (Simmons Market Research Bureau) provides annual reports covering television markets, sporting goods and proprietary drugs. The reports give lifestyle and geodemographic data by sex, income, age and brand preferences (selective markets and media reaching them). jVFO Research provides data for the beverage industry (SIPS), for mail order businesses (MOMS), and for carpet and rug industries (CARS). It also provides a mail panel for concept and product testing, attitude and usage studies, and tracking and segmentation (Analycor). International data Here are only a few of the many sources providing international information: United Nations publications include the Statistical Yearbook, a comprehensive source of international data for socioeconomlc indicators; Demographic Yearbook, a collection of demographies data and vital statistics for 220 countries- and the Internatumal Trade Statistics Yearbook, which provides information on foreign trade for specific countries and commodities.
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Europa Yearbook provides surveys on history, politics, population, economy and natural resources for most countries of the world, along with information on the chief international organizations. Political Risk Yearbook contains information on political situations in foreign countries, with reference to US investment. It predicts the political climate in each country. Foreign Economic Trends and Their Implications for the United States provides reports on recent business, economic and political developments in specific countries. International Marketing Data and Statistics provides marketing statistics by country, including data on consumer product markets for countries outside the United States and Europe. Other sources include Country Saulics, QECQ Kcatiomic Surveys, Economic Nurvey of Europe, Asian Kccinomic Ilantibtjok and International Financial Sratistics.
secondary information carefully to make certain it isrelevant (fits research project needs), accurate (reliably collected and reported), current (sufficiently up to date for current decisions) and impartial (objectively collected and reported). Secondary data provide a good starting point for research and often help to define problems and research objectives. In most cases, however, secondary sources cannot provide all the needed information and the company must collect primary data.
PLANNING PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION. Good decisions require good
qualitative research Kxptoratory research used to uncover consumers' motivations, attitudes and behaviour. Focus-group interviewing, elicitation intervitruDS ami repertory grid techniques arc typical methods used in this type of research. quailtit:tlive research Research which involves data collection by mail or personal interviews from a sufficient volume of customers to allow statistical analysis. observational research The gathering of primary data by observing relevant people, actions and situations.
data. Just as researchers must carefully evaluate the quality of secondary information they obtain, they must also take great care in collecting primary data to ensure that they provide marketing decision makers with relevant, accurate, current and unbiased information. This could be qualitative research that measures a small sample of customers' views, or quantitative research that provides statistics from a large sample of consumers. Table 8.2 shows that designing a plan for primary data collection calls for a number of decisions on research approaches, contact methods, sampling plan and research instruments. RESEARCH APPROACHES. Observational research is the gathering of primary data by observing relevant people, actions and situations. Por example: •
A food-products manufacturer sends researchers into supermarkets to find out the prices of competing brands or how much shelf space and display support retailers give its brands.
• A bank evaluates possible new branch locations by checking traffic patterns, neighbourhood conditions and the locations of competing branches. • A maker of personal-care products pretests its ads by showing them to people and measuring eye movements, pulse rates and other physical reactions. • •
A department store chain sends observers who pose as customers into its stores to cheek on store conditions and customer service. A museum checks the popularity of various exhibits by noting the amount of floor wear around them.
Several companies sell information collected through mechanical obserA nation. For example, Nielsen and AGB attach 'people meters' to television sets in selected homes to record who watches which programmes. They provide summaries
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Table 8.3
Strengths and weaknesses of the four contact methods MAIL
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Poor Flexibility Good Quantity of data that can be collected Excellent Control of interviewer effects Fair Control of sample Poor .Speed of data collection Poor Response rate Cost Good Good Sample frame
experimental research Thegathering of primary data by selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them different treatments, controlling related factors and checking for differences in group responses.
TELEPHONE
PERSONAL
INTERNET
Good
Excellent Excellent Poor Fair Good Good Poor Fair
Fair Good Excellent Fair Excellent Poor Excellent Poor
Fair Fair Excellent Excellent Good Fair Excellent
Respondents may answer survey questions even when they do not know the answer, simply in order to appear smarter or more informed than they are. Or they may try to help the interviewer by giving pleasing answers. Finally, busy people may not take the time, or they might resent the intrusion into their privacy. Careful survey design can help to minimize these problems. Experimental research gathers causal information. Experiments involve selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them different treatments, controlling unrelated factors and checking for differences in group responses. Thus experimental research tries to explain oause-and-effect relationships. Observation and surveys can collect information in experimental research. Before extending their product range to include fragrances, researchers at Virgin Megastores might use experiments to answer questions such as the following: •
How much will the fragrances increase Virgin's sales?
• • •
How will the fragrances affect the sales of other menu items? Which advertising approach would have the greatest effect on sales of their fragrances? How would different prices affect the sales of the product?
•
How will the product affect the stores' overall image?
For example, to test the effects of two prices, Virgin could set up a simple experiment. It could introduce fragrances at one price in one city and at another price in another city. If the cities are similar and if all other marketing efforts for the fragrances are the same, then differences in the price charged could explain the sales in the two cities. More complex experimental designs could include other variables and other locations. CONTACT METHODS. Mail, telephone, personal interviews and the Internet, a recent development, can collect data. Table 8.3 shows the strengths and weaknesses of each of these contact methods. Postal questionnaires have many advantages. They can collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent. Respondents may give more honest
Developing Information • 32'J
answers to more personal questions on a postal questionnaire than to an unknown interviewer in person or over the phone, since there is no interviewer to bias the respondent's answers. However, posta! questionnaires also have disadvantages. They are not very flexible: they require simple and clearly worded questions; all respondents answer the same questions in a fixed order; and the researcher cannot adapt the questionnaire based on earlier answers. Mail surveys usually take longer to complete and the response rate — the number of people returning completed questionnaires is often very low. Finally, the researcher often has little control over the postal questionnaire sample. Even with a good mailing list, it is often hard to control 'K'hoat the mailing address fills out thequestionnaire. I K Telephone intervie, .1 (1989), pp. 183-98. For more on statistical analysis, consult a standard text, such as Tull and Hawkins, Marketing Research, op. cit. For a review of marketing models, see Lilien at at., Mttrketing Models, op. cit. Many of the examples in this section, along with others, are found in Subhash C. Jain, International Marketing Maruigement, 3rd edn (Boston, MA: PwS-Kent Publishing, 3990), pp. 334-9; see also Vein Terpstra and Ravi Sarathy, International Marketing (Chicago. IL: Drydcn I'ress, 1991), pp. 208-13. Jain, International Marketing Management, op. cit., p. 338.
Case 8 ACT: Feeling Out the Appliance Controls Market WALLACE LEYSHON, HEAD OF APPLIANCE Control Technology (ACT), looked up from the copy of Appliance Manufacture Magazine that he was reading as Gregory Pearl, ACT's marketing director, entered his office. Levshon had recently founded ACT after leaving his position as business director of Motorola's electronic control appliance division. Levshon had felt that Motorola was pursuing conventional industry strategies by manufacturing its products in foreign countries (offshore). Leyshon believed that the industry was ready for an unconventional strategy, and he had left Motorola to begin his own business. ACT would focus on designing, manufacturing and selling couch-sensitive digital control panels for home appliances such as microwave ovens, cookers and washing machines. The panels allow consumers to control appliances at the touch of a finger to set cooking time or to select the 'cook' or 'defrost' cycles on a microwave oven, for example. These controls replace the buttons and dials found on many appliances. The home appliance industry is mature. Furthermore, the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers estimates that the number of home appliances per household rose from 3.3 in 1960 to 4.1 in 1970, to 5.4 in 1982, and to 6.1 in 1987. Industry analysts question whether this level of penetration can increase further. However, despite slow growth in the appliance industry as a whole, Leyshon's research predicts that sales of digital control panels for appliances could grow at 22 per cent a year in the future. Only about 20 per cent of appliances now include digital controls. However, one industry analyst notes chat, with the success of microwave ovens and video-
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cassette recorders, consumers have bceome increasingly comfortable with digital touch-sensitive controls. Leyshon believes that increased consumer familiarity has opened the way for manufacturers to include digital control panels in other types of home appliance that users currently control with dials and buttons (electromechanical controls). With a digital control, for example, a standard clcetric cooker could offer users the wide range of special cooking programmes that microwave ovens now provide. After starting ACT, Leyshon landed a significant contract with a major microwave oven manufacturer. With this customer's business to support ACT, Leyshon realized he needed to conduct marketing research to help him develop a marketing strategy to attack the appliance controls market. Although there were only a limited number of digital control suppliers and five major manufacturers in the industry, Leyshon could find very little readily available marketing research on the appliance controls industry, especially on digital controls. 'How's your morning going?' Gregory Pearl asked as he entered Leyshon's office. 'Fine. I was just looking through this magazine to see if I could find anything to help us with our marketing research. It appears that appliance shipments are tuning down again. What have you got for me?' 'Well, during our last discussion, we outlined the market research process we want to follow' (see Exhibit 8.1). 'Based on that outline, I've tried to write sonic research goals, develop a list of specific questions for our proposed telephone interviews, and figure out just whom we should call' (see Exhibit 8.2). 'In fact, I've even drafted a preliminary version of the questionnaire' (see Exhibit 8.3). Leyshon was pleased with his marketing director's progress. 'OK, let's take a look at what you've done. Then we can decide where we go from here.'
EXHIBIT 8.1 STEPS IN ACT MARKETING RESEARCH PROCESS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Identify and articulate the problem. Identify research goals. Determine the information needed to achieve the research goals. Determine research design. Decide on research sample (i.e., whom to call). Determine content of the individual questions.
7. Construct a questionnaire.
8. 9. 10. 11.
Test the questionnaire, Adjust the questionnaire based on the test results. Conduct the interviews. Write up the results of each interview.
12. Write a report.
EXHIBIT 8.2 ACT MARKETING RESEARCH DESIGN ISSUES I.
Survey goals A. Gain insight into best strategy for approaching the electronic controls market. 1. Type of appliances 2. Features 3. Cost issues 4. Tactical selling issues B. Determine how ACT can best serve original equipment manufacturers (OEMs).
1. Research and development 2. Partnering 3. Product development cycle U. Specific questions to be addressed A. What problems do equipment manufacturers and retailers face in making and selling home appliances? Flow can ACT help solve those problems? B. Who are the decision makers in the electronics buying process? Who has the power between the retailer and the equipment manufacturer? G. Are there any unidentified issues from AGT's. the manufacturers' or the retailers' perspectives? D. How rapidly will manufacturers adopt electronic controls for their appliances, by category of appliances? E. How sensitive are manufacturers to the price of electronic controls versus standard electro mechanical controls? P. What arc the manufacturers' impressions of suppliers' strengths and weaknesses?
G. What features and issues other than price drive the use of electronic controls? I-I. How can manufacturers use electronic controls to add value to midlevel appliances? I. How can a supplier be a better partner to manufacturers? ,1. What can a supplier do to speed up manufacturers' product development efforts? III. Who should be interviewed? A. Manufacturers R. Retailers 1. Functional areas 1. Functional areas a. Purchasing a. Buyers b. Marketing b. Store-level management c. Engineering o. Floor sales personnel 2. Specific companies 2. Specific companies a. Sears a. Whirlpool b. Frigidairc b. Montgomery Ward c. General Electric C. Highland d. Maytag d. Wal-Mart e. Ravtheon C. Other 1. Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers
EXHIBIT 8.3 VERSION 1 - ACT MARKETING RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE
Introduction ACT is conducting a survey of decision makers and industry experts in the electronic appliance controls industry. We would appreciate your help in answering our questions. Your responses will be reported anonymously, if they are reported at all. Yoxir responses will be used to help ACT determine how to serve the appliance industry better. Questions 1. A. What are your opinions on the level of electronic control usage, expressed in percentages, in the following appliance categories for 1991 and 1996?
362 • Chapter 8 Market Information and Marketing Research B. What arc your opinions on the average cost per electronic control by appliance category in 1991 and 1996? Average cost per Percentage of units using electronic controls in: control unit in: 7997 1996 1991 7996 Category Cookers, electric
Cookers, gas Dishwashers . Dryers, electric Dryers, gas Microwaves Refrigerators Washers „ Room air conditioners 2. For each of the following categories, what price must a supplier charge for an electronic control unit such that a manufacturer would be indifferent as to using electronic or electromechanical controls, taking into account the differences in functions and features? Category Price per electronic unit Cookers, electric . Cookers, gas Dishwashers Dryers, electric , Dryers, gas , Microwaves Refrigerators Washers Room air conditioners 3. What features, functions and attributes do electronic controls need to have if they are to be used more often in appliances? 4. What impact will the forthcoming Department of Energy regulations have on the appliance industry? 5.
What can an electronic controls company do to be a better supplier?
QUESTIONS 1.
Based on information in the case and in Exhibits 2 and 3, just what in Leyshon trying to learn through marketing research? What additional trends and information might he want to monitor as part of his ongoing marketing information system? 2. What sources of marketing intelligence can ACT use to gather information on the industry and its competition? 3. What decisions has ACT made about its research approach, contact method and sampling plan? 4. Evaluate ACT's proposed questionnaire (Exhibit 3). Does it address the issues raised in Exhibit 2? What changes would you recommend? 5.
6.
Based on the marketing research process discussed in the text, what is ACT's marketing research objective, and what problem is the company addressing? Evaluate ACT's marketing research process (Exhibit 1).
Overview Case Two
Ballygowan Springs into New Age Kisqua Brenda Cullen*
Introduction IN JANUARY 1991 GEOFF READ, managing director of Ballygowan Spring Water Company, had to make a decision that could alter the whole direction of the company. Since August 1988 the management team had shaped a strategy to launch a drink to develop upon the success of Ballygowan Spring Water. The objective was to provide Ballygowan with a product to enter the soft-drinks market and so remove the weakness of being a one-product company. After identifying the market for 'new age' products, and carrying out research at each stage in the product development process, the results of a final test market were disappointing, Ballygowan had to consider whether to withdraw the product, to redesign and reposition the new range, or to go ahead and launch as originally planned. Geoff Read founded Ballygowan in 1981 and by 1991 the company exported to IS countries and held 77 per cent of the 12.5 million litre water market in Ireland and had developed an extensive range of bottled spring water products. Tipperary was no. 2 in the market with 13.5 per cent market share. Since 1987 Pcrrier's share had dropped from 13 to 4 per cent. Between 1987 and 1989 the company grew to be a medium-sized enterprise geared for expansion and growth. A joint investment with Anheuser Busch provided a very modem production facility covering 30,000 square metres with a capacity of 600 bottles per minute. Ballygowan's success came from being an innovator in the market for water-based products, and also from astute management of the Ballygowan brand franchise. Management now saw the need to exploit the assets of the company more profitably. In particular, the plant was not at mil capacity and the company's strong distribution network and experienced management were not being fully utilized.
• Bottled Water Market By the end of 1985 the bottled water market in Ireland was IS1.2 million (2.8 million litres) with about 10 per cent of adults drinking mineral water regularly.
364
Overview Case Two: Baitygowan By 1990 it had grown to IS12.5 million (12.5 million litres), 5.5 per cent of the Irish soft-drinks market. The bottled water market was 'one of the fastest growing sectors in the food trade in both Ireland and the UK'. Reasons for this were a reduction in the quality of tap water and changing attitudes towards health and fitness, which led to an increase in the demand for drinks perceived as natural, alcohol free and with fewer calories. Furthermore, increasingly stringent drinkdriving legislation was leading to an increase in the consumption of bottled water, A Euromonitor survey in 1989 showed that the Irish consumed far less bottled water per person than other countries (Ireland: 3 litres; United Kingdom: 5,5; Italy: 80; Germany: 76; France: 68; and the United States: 30). The market potential for spring water in Ireland was small considering the number of competitor brands on the market. While some niche brands had high prices, low prices were becoming common because of aggressive high-street pricing, own-label products and cheap imports. With a proliferation of products and the threat of commoditization, it was becoming difficult to develop new niches in the market.
• Ballygowan Spring Water Ballygowan's success came from the sparkling and non-sparkling waters Ballygowan Sparkling Irish Spring Water and Ballygowan Natural Irish Spring Water, A later addition to the range was Ballygowan Light, and in 1988 Ballygowan successfully launched a range of flavoured spring waters. By 1990 the company's turnover was I£10 million, a figure it hoped to double within the next two years. An important part of this strategy was the launch of soft drinks - a market where the company saw significant volume potential. The management wanted to launch a new drink to bring Ballygowan further into the mainstream soft-drinks market, it would enhance the company's reputation for innovation, market leadership, excellence and product quality. The product would be purer, juicier, fruitier and healthier than any other soft drink on the market. The brand should be consistent with developing consumer behaviour, particularly attitudes and behaviours towards healthy diets and lifestyles. The Irish carbonated soft-drinks market in 1990 was about 235 million litres, including approximately 40 million litres of adult soft drinks, up from 179 million litres in 1987. Soft-drink consumers were the target market for the proposed new product. They were likely to be more adult than young and would prefer to drink 7-Up (38 per cent) or Club Orange (25 per cent) to Coke or Pepsi (24 per cent). The profile of this consumer was 'a sophisticated, self-righteous and reasonably health-conscious adult', 18-30 years old, who wants and will pay for drinks that look good, taste good and portray a certain image.
• Product Development Process A product development process identified product development, brand development and business planning stages. In December 1988, Ballygowan employed a marketing consultancy firm, Dimension, to help in the first two stages. The consultancy's brief was as follows: A • Identify and brief three companies to develop prototype products based on pure juices and Ballygowan Spring Water with natural flavours and sweeteners, carbonated, containing preservatives, but not pasteurized. • •
Develop formulations for up to six flavours. Develop name, branding, positioning, communication and marketing Strategies.
• •
Target the branded soft-drink sector - Coke, 7-Up, Club, Lilt, and so on. Develop a brand with a premium but accessible imagery, and superior product quality, but priced competitively with major brands. The brand should have no overt Ballygowan endorsement,
t •
It should be packed in 1.5 litre plastic bottles, 330 ml cans and 250 ml glasses.
•
Primary focus to be the Irish market, but with export potential.
• Product Sourcing The first task was to find a company that could manufacture the pure fruit juice to mix with Ballygowan Spring Water. Criteria for the selection of a company were degree of technological sophistication, ability to produce : range of flavours, expertise in producing fniit juices and flavours, product quality, hygiene standards and speed of response. Three short-listed companies were briefed. Visits to each company appraised their production processes and capabilities. The three companies each made laboratory-scale products, which were tested using a structured questionnaire assessing aroma, appearance, taste and overall opinion on each of the test products. All tests were 'blind', and the products were compared with successful brands already on the market as 'controls'. The range of flavours screened included orange, lemon, apple, passion fruit, grapefruit, peach, pineapple, blackberry and blackcurrant. The aim was to achieve product ratings competitive with the 'controls' (see Exhibit 2.1).
EXHIBIT 2.1 TASTE TEST PRODUCT Club Orange Dohler Orange Dohler Orange and Peach Dohler Orange and Passion Fruit Dohler Orange and Lemon Club Lemon Dohler Lemon
Dohler Grapefruit and Pineapple
AROMA.'
APPEARANCE'
TASTE'
6.9 5.9 7.4
7.5 5.6
7.3 6.1
6.6
OVERALL LIKELIHOOD SCORE OK PURCHASE11
7.4 6.1
7.1
7.5
3.5 2.6 3.3
6.3
7.0
7.0
3.2
6.4
6.4
6.9
7.2
3.2
6-7 6.5 5.8
6.5
7.2
6.9
6.9 5.5
7.4 7.4 6.1
3.5 3.2 2.5
7.2
6.2
NOTES * Average scores cm nine-point scale, in which 9 = most favourable and 1 = least favourable; *ona scale of 1 to 5. SOURCE: Dimension. March 1989.
After the analysis of each batch, the three companies were rebriefed, shown the taste test results and told the changes required. After repeating the process six times, a German company, which responded particularly well to the product brief and to the taste tests, was appointed as the supplier. Both companies then agreed plant and equipment specifications.
i
366 • Overview Case 7co.- Ballygowan
• Product Formulations Six products were produced for a quantitative market research survey conducted in May 1989 by Behaviour & Attitudes, a market research agency in Dublin. A questionnaire, developed from Dimension's earlier one, focused on aroma, appearance and flavour. The flavours tested were 10 per cent orange juice, 15 per cent orange and peaeh juice, 15 per cent orange and passion fruit juice, 10 per cent orange and lemon juice, 10 per cent lemon juice, and 15 per cent grapefruit and pineapple juice, with Club Orange and Club Lemon as 'controls'. Eaeh of 200 respondents taste-tested two Ballygowan samples and one of the 'controls', to give 75 assessments of each Ballygowan product. The results convinced the Ballygowan team to focus on orange, orange and peach, orange and passion fruit, and orange and lemon. Lemon, and grapefruit and pineapple, could extend the range later (see Exhibit 2.2). Since the results of the orange formulation were not satisfactory, a second round of quantitative market research would take place with performance isolated from packaging and advertising effects.
EXHIBIT 2.2 SUMMARY RATINGS ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE PEACH LEMON (15% (10%
GRAPEFRUIT AND
PASSION
ORANGE
FRUIT
PINEAPPLE LEMOK (10% GLUE (15% JUICE) LEMON JUICE)
Gl-UR
00%
(15%
JUICE)
JUICE)
ORANGE
JUICE)
JUICE)
5 5 5
3 2 3
4 2 3
2 2 2
3 4 3
4 3 4
4 3 4
2 2 2
4 5 5
2 3 3
5 4 5
r j
2
3 3 3
5 5 5
2 3 4
3 3 2
Flavour Good taste Real fruit flavour Sweetness (right) Refreshment Overall taste
4 5 5 5 5
3 3 3 3 3
5 3 3 5 4
1 1 3 1 1
3 4 3 3 4
4 5 5 5 4
5 3 5 5 4
1 1 3 1 1
Overall rating
5
4
4
1
3
4
5
1
Aroma Attractiveness Naturalness Overall Appearance Attractiveness Naturalness Overall
Key: 5 4 3 2 1
Well above average Above average Average Below average Well below average
SOURCE: Behaviour & Attitudes, Market Research Survey. May I9S9.
Some questions remained. Should the products be pasteurized, and should essence or preservatives be TisedV Eaeh of these options had complications. Pasteurization meant that it would not be possible to use plastic bottles and there were also shelf-life implications. However, with pasteurization, the' product
Overview Case Two: BaHygowain • 367 ingredients are '100 per cent natural'. Using essence would overcome shelf-life difficulties, hut would not he consistent with the hrand propositions. Finally, preservatives were in most soft drinks on the market, but the management felt that they could compromise Ballygowan's image of purity and naturalness.
• Product Concept and Brand Name Development The development of the product concept and branding began with braiustorming sessions by Dimension. Bally go wan's specification for the name was that it should be relevant, attractive, distinctive, memorable and registenable, and should have the attributes of a global brand name. Out of the hundreds of names generated, .luisca, Jnzze, Artesia, Kisqua, Prima and Viva became prototype brand names. Five positioning options also helped explore the attitudes and motivations of softdrink consumers: 1.
Health drink. A pure, natural and healthy drink for mainstream soft-drink consumers who care about what they consume. 2. S»j)liisticated. A high-status drink of superior quality for discerning consumers. 3.
Healtliy lifestyle. For those who unselfconsciously lead and aspire to a healthy but full lifestyle in terms of diet, exercise and a relaxed but full life. 4. Youthful peer groups. The Pepsi/Club generation. 5. Generic. Refreshment, cooling, youthful and Coke sociability values. Behaviour & Attitudes designed and conducted four focus groups representing market segments with different relationships to soft drinks (see Exhibit 2.3). The focus groups aimed to: •
Investigate the response to five prototype brand names.
• Explore reaction to seven prototype pack designs. • Consider pack dosigns and bottling formats, t Give direction to brand positioning.
EXHIBIT 2.3 Focus GROUPS The four groups were: 1. Young teenage girls 2. Young men 3. Women 4, Women
Middle class 18-24 01 02 22-32 (12 with children 22-32 Bl 132 with children
Target markets: Primary Healtli/body conscious A B Cl Late teens/twenties Young and early teens Teenage adults
Secondary Soft-drink consumers
SOURCE: Behaviour & Attitudes. Market Research, August 1980.
Discussions with each group followed a similar pattern. Initially respondents freely discussed their use and purchase of soft drinks. This naturally led to conversations about different brands. Next, the groups were told about the new
I
368 • Overview Case Tteo: Ballyguwan
idea for a soft drink and shown a board illustrating the new produet concept. Following their responses to the concept, the groups were told that there were alternative prototype brand names and packaging designs. These were presented one by one, with the order of presentation being rotated between different groups. Proposed brand names and pack designs were presented separately. Later, discussion group members were asked to help market the new brand; 'mood boards' were presented and associated with the different brand names and pack designs. Finally, copy statements, presented on boards representing different positioning options, were discussed.
EXHIBIT 2.4 GENERAL CONSUMER ATTITUDES TO SOFT DRINKS YOUNG MEN Perceived as the province of children and teenagers Believe they are not emotionally involved in the market Yet they are regular consumers - for thirst/refreshment Therefore taste and refreshment are their criteria for judging soft drinks Coca-Cola is the preferred brand They associate 7-Up with contemporary youth, and refreshment Will be difficult to impress - little emotional interest in soft drinks
YOUNG GIRLS Very involved with brands as badges of both individuality and groups Very conscious of style and fashion Very high level of health consciousness Brands reflect social valuations and status Bally go wan, Perrler and 7-Up are stylish, sophisticated and healthy Are high-volume users of soft drinks
YOUNG MARRIED WOMEN
Regular purchasers for themselves and their families Soft drinks are an essential household purchase item Oriented towards health and exercise, reflected in their attitude to food and drink brands Disposed towards natural products and low-calorie products 'Natural' products identified as contemporary and fashionable Working class want brands to be accessible; middle class focus on style
In September 1989, Behaviour & Attitudes debriefed Ballygowan about the research. First, it presented consumer attitudes to soft drinks generally (see Exhibit 2.4). The research indicated that teenage boys, teenage girls and young married women had different attitudes and motivations to soft drinks. Secondly, it examined consumer attitudes to soft-drink brands (see Exhibit 2.5) and consumer reaction to the five prototype brands (see Exhibit 2.6). Behaviour & Attitudes made the following points about reactions to the product concept: 1. The ingredients make it more sophisticated than mainstream soft drinks. 2, It was not seen as a totally novel idea. Consumers were aware of Nashs, Citrus Spring and Britvic.
3. The pleasant product and the endorsement of Ballvgowan aroused a high predisposition to try it. 4. Price parity with Coke and 7-Up raised consumers' disposition to try the product.
EXHIBIT 2.5 CONSUMER ATTITUDES TO SOFT-DRINK BRANDS Coke • Perceived as the archetypal soft drink. • Strong consistent branding, massive advertising support. • Two problems: perceived by some as harsh, causing tooth decay, overly masculine personality. Club Orange • The archetypal orange soft drink. • Its appeal is primarily based on its product characteristics - real orange taste with lots of orange in it. • Advertising not consistent with the brand. Lilt • Has no clear product focus - a mix of different things. • Dissonance between advertising and product knowledge. 7-Up • Very coherent brand, with wellrounded persona.
• Very popular and the most contemporary soft drink. • 'The soft drink for the 1990s.' • Healthy perception - clean and clear, • Appeals to male and female. • Not limited to teenagers: helped by its mixer usage; helped by its healthy image. • Strong perception of being refreshed. Club Lemon • Valued for its product characteristics of taste and refreshment. • Very loyal consumers - almost a eult. Luoosade • Strong healthy drink imagery. • Regarded as a soft drink by young men. • Well out of its old bospital/sick bed positioning. • Reparative quality for handling hangovers.
EXHIBIT 2.6 CONSUMER REACTIONS TO FIVE PROTOTYPE BRANDS PROTOTYPE BRAND
Artesia
Prima
REACTION TO NAME • Distinctive but difficult to come to terms with. • Far too up-market/exclusive. • Not appropriate to the product concept. • Will not appeal to a mass market. • More relevant to wine. • Very favourably received by working class - very easy to empathize with. • Straightforward, direct and impactful for the working class. • Targeted at mass market - no pretensions.
REACTION TO DESIGN Very up-market, albeit very beautiful. Very 'designery', 'yuppie' and exclusive. Very aspirational.
Very distinctive, but so sophisticated as to exclude the large majority. Appealed only to a small minority, and contemporary. Otherwise perceived as oriented to very young children.
Very dissonant with product concept.
370 • Overview Case
; BaUygowan
PROTOTYPE
REACTION TO NAME
BRAND
REACTION TO DKSIC.K
• • • •
But: rejected by middle class. Just another name, pedestrian. Little depth of imagery. Association with Pennys gives it a down-market image. • No di.stinctiveness. Lacked novelty, not stylish, not sophisticated. Cheap. Dissonant with the Ballygowan heritage. Looked Spanish - negative imagery. Blue colour not liked.
Viva
• Strong appeal to teenage girls they associated it with beauty, fashion and style. • International - but cliched and pedestrian. • Strong negative Spanish association: eheap. • Spanish orange drink; 'Viva • Espaiia'; Costa del Sol. • Lively, bright, extrovert and exuberant. • Dynamic and modern brand,
Juzze
• Significant pronunciation difficulties. • Superficial and artificial. • Yet youthful, con temporary1 and up to date, • International. • Correlated with the product concept, except for a phoniness in its spelling. • Associated with zest, zing and vitality. • Suggested pure fruit juice.
• In mainstream of so ft-drinks market. • Very OK, but no surprise or aspirations! qualities. • Lacks excitement or fun, too logical. • Consistently compared with Squeez and Britvic - but concentrated - is not pure orange juice. • Might position it against Britvic rather than Club.
Kisqua
• Pronunciation initially difficult, but quickly overcome. • Very definite and individualistic name. • Novel and unique brand name. • Drew favourable emotional relationships. • International and cosmopolitan - potential to be a 'world brand'. • Elegant and sophisticated. • High quality and accessible.
• The best representative of the new product. • Much more depth than other concept alternatives. • Good impact, will generate trial easily. • Stylish yet solidly in the mainstream of soft drinks but a bit too straightforward? • Very good typography.
A series of meetings between Dimension and the Ballygowan management team considered brand positioning and target market strategics. They chose Kisqua as the brand name. It was stylish, novel, distinctive, memorable, appropriate and warm, and had the attributes of a world brand name. Ballygowan Spring Water's name would endorse Kisqua, Ballygowan also applied for registration of Artcsia in case the company should wish to launch an up-market spring water.
Overview Case Two: BaUygcrwan • 371
Marketing Mix The Ballygowan company next needed to know the impact of the brand name, label design, price, positioning and advertising options on Kisqua's branding strategy. A further question was the reason for people's preference for Kisqua or Club Orange. In October 1989 Behaviour & Attitudes researched these key areas. It used a central location to approach a quota sample of 200 respondents. The respondents were in two equal subgroups: one group to taste-test Club Orange and Kisqua blind, and the other group with both products branded. The results in percentages were: Prefer Club a lot Prefer Club a little Prefer Risqua a lot Prefer Risqua a little No preferences
Blind 59 16
Branded 39 19
0 6 3
19 6
6
Ballygowan believed that by working on Kisqua's colour and sweetness it could significantly improve its appeal to the market, and also develop much higher ratings by fine-tuning Risqua's advertising strategy. Response to Risqua's name was positive: 71 per cent liked the name Kisqua compared to 20 per cent who did not. When assessing Kisqua's label, 36 per cent of respondents considered it above average, 36 per cent average and 26 per cent below average. Two advertising concepts were presented. 'Kisqua - what could be more natural' received better than average scores from 38 per cent of respondents, while 45 per cent rated it average. Projective tests associated Kisqua with sports-minded and healthconscious people and with people who really care about quality and who may be described as trendsetters. The target market was confirmed as soft-drink consumers in social classes A, B, Cl and C2, 15-30 years old and of either sex. Following the research, Dimension made the appropriate adjustment to the advertising concept. Pack design was a very important aspect of this project. Ballygowan had proprietorial rights to the distinctive bottle designs used for its spring water range. However, it believed that Kisqua should be differentiated from Ballygowan's other products and that the branding and bottle design of Kisqua should help distinguish it w i t h i n the soft-drinks market. The pack design assumed that Kisqua would compete directly with Club Orange.
• Business Plan Initially the business plan had Risqua available in three pack sizes; 1,5 litre plastic, 250 ml glass and 330 ml cans. Distribution would be through the existing Ballygowan network of grocery, wholesalers (grocery and bottlers), cash-andcarry and independent outlets. Three pricing options were considered: a low-pricing strategy that would put Kisqiia into the market with prices comparable to Coke and 7-Up, a medium-pricing strategy, and a high-pricing strategy positioning Kisqua as a premium brand. Early projections gave strategies yielding the following percentage market shares in 1990: Low-price strategy Medium-price strategy High-price strategy
Plastic 4.2 3.3 2.1
Cans 3.1 2.2 1.5
Includes plastic bottles, cans and glass bottles.
Overall' 3.0 2.1 1.6
The marketing department projected that these volumes would inerease by 33 per cent during the second year and by 16 per cent during the third year. After three years and assuming a medium pricing strategy, Kisqua's market share would be approximately 3 per cent of Ireland's soft-drinks market. This compared with Ciub Orange's 10 per cent market share in 1990. With a capital investment of I£1.5 million and [£120,000 for additional technical staff, generous trade margins and all other relevant costs, the profits projections gave a reasonable return on investment and room to discount to supermarkets to compete with Coke and 7-Up if necessary.
• Test Market From August to October 1990 Ballygowan test marketed Kisqua as a pasteurized drink in 250 ml glass bottles. The test was conducted in the Dublin area using Ballygowan's main independent distributor serving 250 GTNs (combined confectioner, tobacconist and newsagents), delicatessens and petrol stations. The results were discouraging. Most of the negative reaction centred on the pack and retailers not knowing where to position the range in their store. Ballygowan's management now faced a difficult decision. Should they withdraw Kisqua altogether, redesign and reposition it, or go ahead as originally planned? They knew that if they were to delay and relaunch, the payback on the expensive research and development would be put back considerably.
QUESTIONS 1.
What types of market research method did Ballygowan use?
2.
What sorts of information were Ballygowan's management hoping to get from the different methods they used? Is quantitative marketing research intrinsically more reliable than qualitative research? 3. Relate the market research to the stages in the product development process and explain how they contributed to Ballygowan's understanding of the strategy for launching Kisqua. 4. Were the methods appropriately used and what alternatives would you suggest? Why could in-depth marketing research lead to wrong strategic choices? 5. 6.
What explains Ballygowan's poor showing in the market? Did Ballygowan do too much, or too little, market research? Where should Ballygowan's management go from here? What extra research should they do, if any? Should they go ahead with the existing marketing strategy, reposition the product, start again or give up?
'The meek shall inherit the earth, but they'll not increase market share.' WILLIAM G. McGowAN
Part Introduction PART THREE OF PRINCIPLES Of MARKETING covers core strategy, the centre of the marketing process. Within core strategy, marketing knowledge is made into the strategies that guide marketing action. Businesses mostly succeed by concentrating on a group of customers they can serve better than anyone else. Chapter 9 explains how markets can be broken down into customer segments and how to choose the ones to target. Chapter 10 then looks at ways to address the target segments by creating mental associations that attract customers to the product or services. A Levi ad once claimed that 'quality never goes out of style'. That has become a hyword for much of modern marketing, as marketers try to escape from making single transactions with customers to establishing relationships that both enjoy. Chapter 11 returns to marketing's central belief in customer satisfaction to see how quality, value and service can help. Increasingly, it is not enough for marketers to look at customers; they must also look at what their competitors are doing and respond to them. Chapter 12 shows that success in marketing does not mean direct confrontation with competitors. It is often best to find new ways to please customers that build upon abusiness's unique strengths.
CHAPTER 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting
CHAPTER 10 Positioning
CHAPTER 11 Building Customer Relationships; Customer Satisfaction, Quality, Value and Service
CHAPTER 12 Creating Competitive Advantages
PART OVERVIEW CASE: Cadlmry's 'llmeOut: Choc Around the Clock
• 375
Market Segmentation and Targeting Satisfying Human Needs
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Define market segmentation and market targeting. List and discuss the primary bases for segmenting consumer and business markets. Explain how companies identify attractive market segments and choose a market-cover age strategy.
Preview Case Procter & Gamble: How Many is Too Many? PROCTER & GAMBIA is THE market leader in the United States and the European detergent markets. In the United Ktat.es it markets nine brands of laundry detergent (Tide, Cheer, Gain, Dasb, Bold 3, Dreft, Ivory Snow, Oxydol and Era). The cultural and competitive diversity in Europe means that even more brands, such as Ariel, are used to serve that market. Why so many? Besides its many detergents Procter & Gamble sells eight brands of hand soap (Zest, Coast, Ivory, Safeguard. Camay, Oil of Ulay, Kirk's and Lava); sis shampoos (Prell, Head & Shoulders, Ivory, Pert, Panic no and Vidal Sassoon); four brands each of liquid dish-washing detergents (Joy, Ivory, Dawn and Liquid Cascade), toothpaste (Crest, Gleam, Complete and Dcnquel), coffee
• 376 •
Preview,' Casd: ProQtcr & Gamble
(Folger's, High Point, Butternut and Maryland Club) and toilet tissue (Cliarmin, White Cloud, Banner and Summit); three brands of floor cleaner (Spic & Span, Top Job and Mr Clean); and two brands each of deodorant (Secret and Sure), cooking oil (Criseo and Puritan), fabric softener (Downy and Bounce) and disposable nappies (Pampers and TAWS). Moreover, many of the brands art; offered in several sb.es and formulations (for example, you can buy large or small packages of powdered or liquid Tide in any of three forms - regular, unscented or with bleach). These P & G brands compete with one another on the same supermarket shelves. Why would P & G introduce several brands in one category instead of concentrating its resources on a single leading brand? The answer lies in different people wanting different mixes of benefits from the products they buy. Take laundry detergents as an example. People use laundry detergents to get their clothes clean. They also want other things from their detergents - such as economy, bleaching powder, fabric softening, fresh smell, strength or mildness and suds. We all want some of every one of these benefits from our detergent, but we may have different priorities for each benefit. To some people, cleaning and bleaching power are most important; to others, fabric softening matters most; still others want a mild, freshscented detergent. Thus there are groups - or segments - of laundry detergent buyers and each segment seeks a special combination of benefits. Procter & Gamble has identified at least nine important laundry detergent segments, along with numerous subsegments, and has developed a different brand designed to meet the special needs of each. The nine P & G brands aim at different segments:
377
378 • Chapter 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting 1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Tide is 'so powerful, it cleans down to the fibre'. It's the all-purpose family detergent for extra-tough laundry jobs. 'Tide's in, dirt's out.' Tide with Bleach is 'so powerful, it whitens down to the fibre'. Cheer with Colour Guard gives 'outstanding cleaning and colour protection. So your family's clothes look clean, bright and more like new,' Cheer is also formulated for use in hot, warm or cold water - it's 'all temperaCheer'. Cheer Free is 'dermatologist tested .. contains no irritating perfume or dye', Oxydol contains bleach. It 'makes your white clothes really white and your coloured clothes really bright. So don't reach for the bleach - grab aboxof Ox!' Gain, originally P & G's 'enzyme' detergent, was repositioned as the detergent that gives you clean, fresh-smelling clothes - it 'freshens like sunshine'. Bold is the detergent with fabric softener. It 'cleans, softens and controls static'. Bold liquid adds 'the fresh fabrie softener scent*. Ivory Snow is 'Ninety-nine and forty-four one hundred ths percentages pure'. It's the 'mild, gentle soap for diapers and baby clothes'.
7. Dreft is also formulated for baby's nappies and clothes. It contains borax, 'nature's natural sweetener' for 'a clean you can trust'.
8.
Dash is P & G's value entry. It 'attacks tough dirt', but 'Dash does it for a great low price'. 9. Era Plus has 'built-in stain removers'. It 'gets tough stains out and does a great job on your whole wash too'. By segmenting the market and having several detergent brands, P & G has an attractive offering for customers in all import suit preference groups. All its brands combined hold a market share much greater than any single brand could obtain.
QUESTIONS 1.
Why does P & G spread its marketing effort across so many brands rather than concentrating on oneV 2. When a company like P & G has so many brands, many of them often do not make money. That being the case, why do you think it keeps the loss-making brands? 3. If you were in competition with P & G, would you match it brand for brand, concentrate on fewer segments or try to find new ones? 4.
Why do competitors in the same market segment the market differently? 5. Many people without babies use Dreft. Why do you think that is the case and would you encourage such 'off target' consumption? 6. Suggest alternative segments for P & G to enter and suggest how the brands for Chat segment should be promoted.
Market Segmentation • 379
Introduction Organizations that sell to consumer and business markets recognize that they cannot appeal to all buyers in those markets, or at least not to all buyers in the saint way. Buyers are too numerous, too widely scattered and too varied in their needs and buying practices. Companies vary widely in their abilities to serve different segments of the market. Rather than trying to compete in an entire market, sometimes against superior competitors, each company must identity the parts of the market that it can serve best. Segmentation is thus a compromise between mass marketing, which assumes everyone can be treated the same, and the assumption that each person needs a dedicated marketing effort. Few companies now use mass marketing. Instead, they practise target marketing - identifying market segments, selecting one or more of them, and developing products and marketing mixes tailored to each. In this way, sellers can develop the right product for each target market and adjust their prices, distribution channels and advertising to reach the target market efficiently. Instead of scattering their marketing efforts (the 'shotgun' approach), they can focus on the buyers who have greater purchase interest (the'rifle' approach). Figure 9.1 shows the major steps in target marketing. Market segmentation means dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers with different needs, characteristics or behaviours, who might require separate products or marketing mixes. The company identifies different ways to segment the market and develops profiles of the resulting market segments. Market targeting involves evaluating each market segment's attractiveness and selecting one or more of the market segments to enter. Market positioning is setting the competitive positioning for the product and creating a detailed marketing mix. We discuss each of these steps in turn.
Market Segmentation Markets consist of buyers, and buyers differ in one or more ways. They may differ in their wants, resources, locations, buying attitudes and buying practices. Through market segmentation, companies divide large, heterogeneous markets into smaller segments that can be reached more efficiently with products and services that match their unique needs. In this section, we discuss seven important segmentation topics: levels of market segmentation, segmenting consumer markets, segmenting business markets, segmenting international markets, multivariate segmentation, developing market segments and requirements for effective segmentation.
Levels of Market Segmentation Because buyers have unique needs and wants, each buyer is potentially a separate market. Ideally, then, a seller might design a separate marketing programme for each buyer. However, although some companies attempt to serve buyers individually, many others face larger numbers of smaller buyers and do not find complete segmentation worthwhile. Instead, they look for broader classes of buyers who differ in their product needs or buying responses. Thus, market segmentation can
tiirgct marketing Directing a company's effort towards serving one or more groups of customers sharing common needs or characteristics. market segmentation Dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers with different needs, characteristics or behaviour, who might require separate produces or marketing mixes. market targeting The process of evaluating each market segment's attractiveness and selecting one or more segments tn enter. market positioning Arranging for a product to occupy a clear, distinctive and desirable place relative to competing products in the minds of targe! consumers. Formulating competitive positioning for a product and a detailed marketing mix.
380 * Cliaptcr 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting
Figure 9.1
Six steps in market segmentation, targeting and positioning be carried out at many different levels. Companies can practise no segmentation (mass marketing), complete segmentation (micromarketing) or something in between (segment marketing or niche marketing).
• Mass Marketing muss marketing Using almost the same product, promotion and distribution for all consumers.
Companies have not always practised target marketing. In fact, for most of the twentieth century, major consumer-products companies held fast to mass marketing - mass producing, mass distributing and mass promoting about the same product in about the same way to all consumers. Henry Ford epitomized this marketing strategy when he offered the Model T Ford to all buyers; they could have the car 'in any colour as long as it is black'. That cost Ford the world market leadership that it has never regained. The traditional argument for mass marketing is that it creates the largest potential market, which leads to the lowest costs, which in turn can translate into either lower prices or higher margins. However, many factors now make mass marketing more difficult. For example, the world's mass markets have slowly splintered into a profusion of smaller segments - the baby boomer segment here, the generation Xers there; here the Asian market, there the black market; here working women, there single parents; people living close to the Arctic circle, those living on the Mediterranean. It is very hard to create a single product or programme that appeals to all of these diverse groups. The proliferation of advertising media and distribution channels has also made it difficult to practise 'one size fits all' marketing: [Consumers] have more ways to shop: at out of town malls, specialty shops, and superstores; through mail-order catalogs, home shopping networks, and virtual stores on the Internet. And they are bombarded with messages pitched through a growing number of channels: broadcast and narrow-cast television, radio, online computer networks, the Internet, telephone services such as fax and telemarketing, and niche magazines and other print media.1
segment marketing Adapting a company's offerings so they more closely match the needs of one or more segments.
No wonder some have claimed that mass marketing is dying. Not surprisingly, many companies are retreating from mass marketing and turning to segmented marketing.
• Segmenting Markets A company that practises segment marketing recognizes that buyers differ in their needs, perceptions and buying behaviours. The company tries to isolate
Market Segmentation
•
381
broad segments that make up a market and adapts its offers to match more closely the needs of one or more segments. Thus, BMW has designed specifie models for different income and age groups. In fact, it sells models for segments with varied combinations of age and income: for instance, the short wheelbase 3 for young urban drivers. Hilton markets to a variety of segments - business travellers, families and others - with packages adapted to their varying needs. Segment marketing offers several benefits over mass marketing. The company can market more efficiently, targeting its products or services, channels and communications programmes towards only consumers that it can serve best. Thfc company can also market mure effectively by fine-tuning its products, prices and programmes to the needs of carefully defined segments. And the company may face fewer competitors if tower competitors are focusing on this market segment.
• Niche Marketing Market segments are normally large identifiable groups within a market - for example, luxury car buyers, performance car buyers, utility car buyers and economy car buyers. Niche marketing focuses on subgroups within these segments. A niche is a more narrowly defined group, usually identified by dividing a segment into subsegments or by defining a group with a distinctive set of traits who may seek a special combination of benefits. For example, the utility vehicles segment might include light trucks and off-the-road vehicles. And the off-theroad vehicles subsegment might be further divided into the utilitarian segment (Land Rover), light sports utility vehicles (Suzuki) and luxury sports utility vehicles (Range Rover and Lexus) niches. Whereas segments are fairly large and normally attract several competitors, aiches are smaller and normally attract only one or a few competitors. Niche marketers presumably understand their niches' needs so well that their customers willingly pay :i price premium. For example, Ferrari gets a high price for its cars because its loyal buyers feel that no other automobile comes close to offering the produet-serviee-membership benefits that Ferrari docs. Niching offers smaller companies an opportunity to compete by focusing their limited resources on serving niches that may be unimportant to or overlooked by larger competitors. For example, Mark Warner succeeds by selling to distinct holiday niches: all-inclusive family water sports holidays in southern Europe to northern Europeans, and no-kids holidays for older people who want some peace and quiet. However, large companies also practise niche marketing. For example, American Express offers not only its traditional green cards but also gold cards, corporate cards and even platinum cards aimed at a niche consisting of the topspending 1 per cent of its 36 million cardholders.2 And Nike makes athletic gear for basketball, running and soccer, but also for smaller niches such as biking and street hockey. In many markets today, niches are the norm. As an advertising agency executive observed: 'There will be no market for products that everybody likes a little, only for products that somebody likes a lot.'3 Other experts assert that companies will have to'niche or be niched'. 4
• Micro marketing Segment and niche marketers tailor their offers and marketing programmes So meet the needs of various market segments. At the same time, however, they do not customize their offers to each individual customer. Thus, segment marketing and niche marketing fall between the extremes of mass marketing and
niche marketing Adapting a company's offerings to more closely match the needs of one or more subsegments f Marketing Management, 10, 1-3 (1994), pp. 75-88.
A multinational drug company used to segment its market geographically until it found that its sales budgets were limited by legislation. That meant that it had to use its detailers (ethical drug salespeople) more carefully. It developed its multivariate segments using the prescribing habits of doctors for numerous drugs. It identified nine segments of doctors with clear marketing implications. Among them were: • Initiators who prescribed a wide range of drugs in large volumes, but were also eager to try new ones. They were opinion leaders and researchers, but did not have time to see detailers. This group is hard for detailers to see, but critical to the success of new products. They were recognized as 'thought leaders' and had special, research-based promotions and programmes designed for them. • Kindersctirecks have quite high prescription rates and were willing to see detailers, but had few children patients. They arc an accessible and attractive target, but not for children or postnatal products. • Thrifty howseroiws were often married women with children who did not run their medieal practice full time. They had few patients, prescribed very few drugs and were usually unavailable to detailers. This segment was not attractive. This allowed the drug company to select target markets for campaigns and help detailers when selling to them.35
I
408 • Chapter 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting
• Multistage Segmentation. It is often necessary to segment a market first one way and then another. For example, most multinationals segment their markets first regionally or nationally (macrosegmentation) and then by another means inside each area (microsegmentation). This can reflect the changing needs of geographical areas or the autonomy that is given to local managers to run their businesses. Often the m aero segmentation is demographic while microsegmeutation is psychographic or behavioural. A Swedish study of an industrial market shows a clear split.-16 At the macro leve!, the most commonly used methods are geographical, firm size, organization (how customer firms are structured), age of firm and age of the chief executive. At the micro level there is more variety: firms' goals, market niches, competition, competitive advantage, expansion plans, personal needs, type of work done, customer type and size of customers. At times segmentation may reach to three or more levels. In industrial markets, for instance, a third level could be the individuals within a buying centre the likely user of a machine tool being approached in a different way to the financial director who would have to pay for it.
Developing Market Segments Segmenting markets is a re search-based exercise with several stages. These apply irrespective of whether the method used is simple demographics or complex and multivariate. 1.
Qualitative research. Exploratory research techniques find the motivations, attitude and behaviour of customers. Typical methods are focus-group interviewing, elicitation interviews or repertory grid techniques. At the same time, the researcher can find out the customers' view of competitive products. It is easy for a maker to define the competition in terms of those making similar products, whereas the customers take a broader view. Once brewers realized that people sometimes drank mineral water or soft drinks instead of beer, they knew the structure of their market was changing.
2. Quernritati'cc research. Quantitative research identifies the important dimensions describing the market. Data are gathered by mail or personal interviews from enough customers to allow analysis. The sample size will depend upon the level of accuracy needed, the limits of the statistical techniques to be used and the need for sufficient information on each segment. The usual minimum is 100 interviews per segment; if, therefore, there are three or four unequal segments, several hundred completed questionnaires will do. These are used to produce a structured questionnaire measuring: (a) attributes and their importance ratings; (b) brand awareness and brand ratings; (c) product-usage patterns; (d) attitude towards the product category; and (e) demographics, psychology and media habits. 3. Analysis. The data collected depend on the sort of analysis to be used. The most common process is the use of factor analysis to remove highly correlated variables, then cluster analysis to find the segments. Other techniques are available. Practitioners often use Automatic Interaction
Market Segmentation • 409 Detection (AID), and conjoint analysis is growing in popularity. These techniques are discussed in more depth in Marketing Highlight 9.4. Validation. It is important to check if the segments are real or have occurred by chance. Cluster analysis has an ability to extract interestinglooking dusters from random data, so this stage is critical. Validation can be by anulyzsing the statistics from the analysis, replicating the results using new data, or experimenting with the segments. Profiling. Each cluster is profiled to show its distinguishing attitudes, behaviour, demographics and so forth. Usually the clusters get a descriptive name. We saw some of these earlier: thrifty houseimvves and initiators among doctors, organisers and explorers among older people, or the energetic male and depressive chocolate eater.
Requirements for Effective Segmentation Clearly there are many ways to segment a market, but not all segmentations are effective. Indeed, there is quite a gap between the sophisticated approaches to segmentation that are sometimes suggested and what is actually used by practitioners,'17 For example, buyers of table salt may divide into blond and brunette customers, hut hair colour obviously docs not affect the purchase of salt. Furthermore, if all salt buyers bought the same amount each month, believed all salt is the same and wanted to pay the same price, the company would not benefit from segmenting this market. To be useful, market segments must have the following characteristics: t
Measurability. The size, buying power and profiles of the segments need measuring. Certain segmentation variables are difficult to measure. For example, there arc 30 million left-handed people in Europe - almost equalling the entire population of Canada - yet few firms target them. The crucial problem may be that the segment is hard to identify and measure. There are no data on the demographics of left-handed people and governments do not keep track of left-handedness in their surveys. Private data companies keep reams of statistics on other demographic segments, but not on left-handers.38 t Accessibility. Can market segments be effectively reached and served? There are many heavy drinkers, but their imbibing is all they have in common. Except for a few Islamic states, heavy drinkers come from all countries, covering all ages, income groups and psychologies, and both genders. Unless this group lives or shops at certain places or sees certain media, its members will be difficult to target. t Substantiality. The market segments are large or profitable enough to serve. A segment should be the largest possible homogeneous group worth pursuing with a tailored marketing programme. It would not pay, for example, for a car manufacturer to develop cars for persons whose height is less than four feet. • Actionability. Effective programmes need to attract and serve the segments. For example, although the Midland Bank identified seven market segments and developed Vector and Orchard accounts for them, its resources were too small to develop special marketing programmes for each segment. It had a limited advertising budget and had to serve all the segments using the same people in the branches.
mcasurability The degree to 'which the size, purchasing pnizer and profits of a market segment can be measured. accessibility The degree to which a market segment can he reached and served. substantiality The degree to which a market segment in sufficiently large or
profitable.
actionability The degree to -which effective programmes can be designed/or attracting and serving a given market segment.
410 • Chapter 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting
Clustering Customers
Marketing Highlight 9.4
Cluster Analysis Whereas AID starts with a population and splits it thin, cluster analysis usually starts with individuals and builds them into groups. Cluster analysis starts with details of more than 200 individuals. The measures can be demographic (as used in geodemographic segmentation), psyehographie (;is in lifestyle segmentation), or both. Cluster analysis is also different to AID in the way it examines al] the discriminating variables at once. Usually all the data gathered are on a set of uniform scales (say 1 to 7), used to represent demographic; attitude, or other dimensions. 1. Cluster analysis first looks at all the individuals and determines which two are most alike. Measures describe how alike the individuals are. 2. It then joins the most alike pair into a cluster that thus becomes a composite individual. ,1. Cluster analysis then looks for the next most alike pair and joins them. This could involve the eomposite cluster joining with one other individual.
4. The process continues until measurements show that the individuals or clusters to be joined are not alike.
A dendrogram shows the individual clusters and how easy it is to join them. In Figure 1 the cluster containing 1, 2, 3 and 10 forms early and so do the clusters containing 4, 7 and 9, and 5,6 and 8. These three clusters could become segments, since they each include objects that look alike. If we try to force the three clusters to make two, there is a jump in 'error' as clusters 4, 7 and 9, and 5, 6 and 8 combine. The big jump suggests there are three natural segments. The individuals in the cluster are not exactly alike, but they may be close enough to be treated as segments. Cluster analysis identified three benefit segments from 199 merit caters in the Netherlands. Table 1 gives some of the details and names the segments. Cluster analysis of the discriminating variables gave the segments. The descriptive variables were not used to find the clusters, but they show cluster differences and help target them. The segments can help market meat products in the Netherlands. None of the segments like fatty meats, but the 'rural fat man' is not worried about fat, likes cheap cuts and is not looking for exclusivity. The 'urban quality seeker' is different. She wants quality, exclusiveness and no fat. She tends to live in northern towns and prefers steak to other cuts of meat. Although cluster analysis is a simple process, a user has to answer several questions before using it. One question is: What is alike? A Porsche and a Trabant may be alike in size, but most people's attitude towards them is quite different. Another question is: What do you do when individuals join to make a new cluster? Do you take the average of them? These and other technical questions need answering by anyone using cluster analysis. Neglect these issues and G1GO (Garbage In, Garbage Out) rules. Cluster analysis is a powerful method that can produce convincing-looking' segments from random data. It also produces different results depending upon how the above questions are answered. The rules for its use are, therefore, test, test and re-test:
Market Segmentation • 411
TABLE 1 THE USE OF CLUSTER ANALYSIS: THREE BENEFIT SEGMENTS IDENTIFIED AMONG MEAT EATERS
SEGMENT Cluster size (%) Discriminating variables duality Fatness Bxelusiveness Convenience Descriptive variables Preferences Sirloin steak Pork belly steaks Brisket beef steaks Demo.j* rap hies Region Residence Gender
RURAL FAT MAN
URBAN QUALITY SEEKER
ROUNDED MEAT EATER
35
41
24
1.88 0.03 -0.92 0.55
2.20 -0.88 0.53 0.59
1.42 -0.63 0.23 0.45
2.70 7.81 6.16
6.94 4.17 4.93
7.52 5.56 5.69
East Rural Male
North Urban Female
West
1. Use well-proven methods. 2. See if the clusters are 'natural' by recreating them using different measures of alikcness. 3. Use some other data to see if the same clusters emerge from them. 4. Test the clusters practically to see if they do behave differently. This can sometimes be done using old data. Recently a bank was able to validate its segments by showing how they had responded differently to past sales promotions. Factor Analysis Faetor analysis is often used in conjunction with cluster analysis. It identifies correlated variables and can reduce their combined effect. Researchers often collect considerable psychographic and other data in segmentation studies and much of it is usually intercorrelated. For example, age, income, family size, size of house and debt are all interrelated for middle-class people. Factor analysis could combine them into a single factor called 'maturity'. This reduces the computational effort in clustering and prevents the results being biased towards groups of correlated variables.
—
Conjoint Analysis Conjoint analysis is a powerful tool that can measure the weight individuals put on the elements of a product or service. It often helps form customer segments. For example, Novotel could examine how much extra customers are willing to pay for a larger room, more expensive furnishings, a better TV in the room and so on. Sometimes it is called trade-off analysis because customers trade off one desirable feature against another; a king-sized bed versus a Teletext TV perhaps. Conjoint analysis examines the desires of individual customers. Often researchers use cluster analysis to combine these into segments.
SOURCES: John Saunders, 'Cluster analysis'. Journal of Marketing Management, 10, 1-3 (1994), pp. 1,1-28; Michel Wedel and Cor Kistemaker, 'Consumer benefit segmentation usin^ cUisterwisu linear regression*, International Journal nf Research in Marketing, (,, 1 (1989), pp. 45-59: Dick R. Witt ink, Marco Vriens and Wira Burhcime. 'Commercial use of conjoint analysis in Europe: results and critical reflection', International Jountai of Research in Marketing, 11, 1 (1994), pp. 73-S4.
412 • Chapter 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting
77iis Smirnoff vodka ad leaves its target market in little doubt.
Market Targeting Marketing segmentation reveals the firm's market-segment opportunities. The firm now has to evaluate the various segments and decide how many and which ones to target. At this point we will look at how companies evaluate and select target segments.
Evaluating Market Segments In evaluating different market segments, a firm must look at two dimensions; segment attractiveness and company fit.
• Segment Attractiveness The eompany must first collect and analyze data on current sales value, projected sales-growth rates and expected profit margins for the various segments.39 Segments with the right size and growth characteristics are interesting. But 'right size and growth' are relative matters. Some companies will want to target segments with large current sales, a high growth rate and a high profit margin. However, the largest, fastest-growing segments are not always the most attractive ones for every company. Smaller companies may find that they lack the skills and resources needed to serve the larger segments, or that these segments are too competitive. Such companies may select segments that are smaller and less attractive, in an absolute sense, but that are potentially more profitable for them. A segment might have desirable size and growth and still not be attractive from a profitability point of view. The company must examine several significant structural factors that affect long-run segment attractiveness,4' For example, the company should assess current and potential competitors. A segment is less attractive if it already contains many strong and aggressive competitors. Marketers also should consider the threat of substitute products. A segment is less attractive i! actual or potential substitutes for the product already exist. Substitutes limit the potential prices and profits from segments. The relative power of buyers also affects segment attractiveness. If the buyers in a segment possess strong or increasing bargaining power relative to sellers, they will try to force prices down, demand more quality or services, and set competitors against one another. All
Market Targeting • 413 these actions will reduce the sellers' profitability. Finally, segment attractiveness depends on the relative power of suppliers, A segment is less attractive if the suppliers of raw materials, equipment, labour and services in the segment are powerful enough to raise prices or reduce the Duality or quantity of ordered goods and services. Suppliers tend to be powerful when they are large and concentrated, when few substitutes exist, or when the supplied product is an important input.
• Business Strengths Even if a segment has the right size and growth and is structurally attractive, the company must consider its objectives and resources for that segment. It is best to discard some attractive segments quickly because they do not mesh with the company's long-run objectives. Although such segments might be tempting in themselves, they might divert the company's attention and energies away from its main goals. They might be a poor choice from an environmental, political or social-responsibility viewpoint. For example, in recent years, several companies and industries have been criticized for unfairly targeting vulnerable segments children, the aged, low-income minorities and others - with questionable products or tactics. Even powerful companies find it hard making headway in markets where they start weak. RTZ is the world's largest mineral extraction company, but when it moved into bulk chemicals and petroleum, it found it could not compete. Before moving into a segment, a firm should consider its current position in that market. AlowmcirfeL't share indicates weakness. Has the firm the energy, will or resources to build it up to economical levels? A firm's growing market share suggests strength, while, conversely, a declining market share suggests a weakness that entering new segments may not help. If a segment uses a firm's market&ng assets, then it fits the company's strengths. If not, the segment could be costly to develop. Mars' excursion into the iced confectionery market has proved difficult. The European iced confectionery market is growing, Mars has the technology and brands that stretched well into ice-cream, but it did not have freezers in shops. Freezers are usually owned by Unilever's Walls or Nestle's Lyons Maid, both experts in frozen food, which bad no reason to let Mars in. However, Mars' unique products and valued reputation allowed it to gain market share against established competitors. Non-marketing dimensions influence the ability of a company to succeed in a segment. Has it low costs, or has it underutilised capacity? Also, does the segment fit the firm's technology strengths? Daimler-Benz has bought hightechnology businesses because it believes it will gain from them information and skills it could use in its core car and truck activities. Final considerations are the resources that the firm can bring to the market. These include appropriate marketing skills, general management strengths and the chance for forward or backward integration into the firm's other activities. IBM and Philips have huge resources, and great technology and marketing skills, but not of the type that will allow them to compete effectively in the dynamic PC market.
• Selecting Market, Segments Royal Dutch Shell's directional policy matrix plots market attractiveness of segments against business strengths. We introduced the method, along with GE's matrix, in Chapter 3. Originally developed as a way of balancing business portfolios, it is also well suited to decision making about which markets to target.41 Figure 9.4 shows an application by an Austrian industrial engineering and construction company.42
414 • Chapter 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting
Figure 9.4
Portfolio of customer segments
'When a segment fits the company's strengths, the company must then decide whether it has the skills and resources needed to succeed in that segment. Each segment has certain success requirements. If the company lacks and cannot readily obtain the strengths needed to compete successfully in a segment, it should not enter the segment. Even if the company possesses the required strengths, it needs to employ skills find resources superior to those of the competition to really win in a market segment. The company should enter segments only where it can offer superior value and gain advantages over competitors. The company in Figure 9.4 is not very strong in any of the most attractive segments. Segments 13 and 17 look most appealing because they are moderately attractive and fit the firm's strengths. Segment 3 is similar, hut the firm needs to build its strengths if it is to compete there. Segments 1, 6 and 9 are attractive, but do not fit the firm's strengths. The firm has to develop new strengths if it is to compote in them. Without the investment the segments are not worth entering, so the firm has to consider the investment needed to enter more than one. Although the firm's strengths are suitable for segments 2 and 12, they are not attractive. target market A set of buyers sharing common needs or characteristics iliut the company decides to serve. un differentiated
marketing A market-coverage strategy in 'which a firm decides to ignore market segment differences and go after tlie whole marker 'with one offer.
SegmentStrategy After evaluating different segments, the company must now deeide which and how many segments to serve. This is the problem of target-market selection. A target market consists of a set of buyers who share common needs or characteristics that the company decides to serve. Figure c>.5 shows that the firm can adopt one of three market-coverage strategies: undifferentiated marketing, differentiated marketing and concentrated marketing.
*
Undifferentiated Marketing
Using an undifferentiated marketing strategy, a firm might decide to ignore market segment differences and go after the whole market with one offer. This can
Market Targeting
Figure 9.5
Three alternative market-coverage strategic?
be because there are weak segment differences or through the belief that the product's appeal transcends segments. The offer will focus on what is common in the needs of consumers rather than on what is different. The company designs a product and a marketing programme that appeal to the largest number of buyers. It relies on quality, mass distribution and mass advertising to give the product a superior image in people's minds. Advertising and promotions have to avoid alienating segments, and so are often based on product features, like 'Polo, the mint with the hole', or associated with a personality of broad appeal, like Esso's tiger. Undifferendated marketing provides cost economies. The narrow product line keeps down production, inventory and transportation costs. The undifferentiated advertising programme keeps down advertising costs. The absence of segment marketing research and planning lowers the costs of market research and product management. Most modern marketers, however, have strong doubts about this strategy. Difficulties arise in developing a product or brand that will satisfy all consumers. Finns using undiffereutiated marketing typically develop an offer aimed at the largest segments in the market. When several firms do this, there is heavy competition in the largest segments and neglected customers in the smaller ones. The result is that the larger segments may be less profitable because they attract heavy competition. Recognition of this problem has led to firms addressing smaller market segments. Another problem is erosion of the mass market as competitors develop new appeals or segments. For example, Polo mints have faced attacks from competitors aiming at different benefit segments: Extra Strong mints for people who want a strong taste and Clorets as breath fresheners. At the same time, Polo faces direct competition from similarly packaged Trobor Mints in Europe and Duplex in .south-east Asia.
• 415
416 • Chapter1^ Market Segmentation and Targeting
Differentiated Marketing differentiated marketing A marker-coverage strategy in which a firm decides to target several market segments and designs separate offers for each.
Using a differentiated marketing strategy, a firm decides to target several market segments and designs separate offers for each. General Motors tries to produce a car for every 'purse, purpose and personality'. By offering product and marketing variations, it hopes for higher sales and a stronger position within each market segment. GM hopes that a stronger position in several segments will strengthen consumers' overall identification of the company with the product category. It also hopes for greater repeat buying because the firm's offer better matches the customer's desire. Originally Martini products were not marketed separately. Advertising concentrated on the Martini brand and its exciting international lifestyle: 'anytime, anyplace, anywhere'. That changed to having the main Martini brands aimed at clearly defined target markets: •
Martini Rosso, the most popular variety, is aimed at a broad sector of the market. Its ads show it being enjoyed by an attractive young couple with 'Our martini is Rosso' or by a small chic group relaxing in elegant surroundings: 'The bitter sweet sensation'.
• Martini Bianco is targeted at people in their twenties who like light alcoholic drinks. It is shown being casually drunk with ice by a sporty, boisterous set, out of doors: 'The sunny side of life'. • Martini Extra Dry is for the sophisticated drinker. The advertising focuses on the bottle and the product in an atmosphere of quiet sophistication.4-1 Differentiated marketing typically creates more total sales than does undifferentiated marketing. KLM could fill all the seats on its New York flights charging APEX fares, but its own income and the number of flyers are increased by segmenting the market. In the main cabin or on the upper deck of each Boeing 747-400 taking off from Sohiphol Airport, there will be about 300 economy passengers. Some of these, holding restricted APEX tickets costing about DFl 1,000, will be sat next to people who have paid over DFl 2,000 for the same flight. They may have booked late or have an open ticket. Forward of them will be about SO Flying Dutchmen, KLM business-class passengers whose companies paid DFl 6,000 for each seat. In the extreme nose could be about 20 first-class passengers at over DFl 10,000 each. The flight could not operate if everyone paid APEX fares because the Boeing would be full before the airline had covered the operating cost. If only full economy fares were charged, many passengers could not afford to fly, so an economy-class 747-400 could not he justified. Also, some firstclass passengers would be deterred from travelling with the crowd. First-class passengers demand big seats, and their catering alone costs over DFl 250 each, but they help maximize the revenue of the airline and the number of people flying.
Concentrated Marketing eoiicentrated marketing
A market-coverage strategy in which a firm goes after a large share of one or a few submarkets.
A third market-coverage strategy, concentrated marketing, is especially appealing when company resources are limited. Instead of going after a small share of a large market, the firm goes after a large share of one or a few submarkets. For example, Oshkosh Trucks is the world's largest producer of airport rescue trucks and front-loading concrete mixers. Recycled Paper Products concentrates on the market for alternative greeting cards, and Ecover concentrates on a narrow segment of environmentally friendly detergents. Concentrated
Summary marketing is an excellent way for small new businesses to get a foothold against larger competitors. Through concentrated marketing, a firm can achieve a strong market position in the segments (or niches) it serves because of its greater knowledge of the segments and its special reputation, Tt also enjoys many operating economies because of specialization in production, distribution and promotion. A firm can earn a high rate of return on its investment from well-chosen segments. At the same time, concentrated marketing involves higher than normal risks. A particular market segment can turn sour. For example, when the 1980s boom ended, people stopped buying expensive sports cars and Porsche's earnings went deeply into the red. Another risk is larger competitors entering the segment. High margins, the glamour and lack of competition in the sports car market has attracted Mazda, Toyota and Honda as powerful competitors in that market. Fashion changes can also damage the niche's credibility. The yuppies who made Porsche's fortunes in the 1980s are over the recession, but have grown up and now have kids and a different lifestyle. Big. chunky, luxuriously appointed 4 x 4 land cruisers are what they want now.
•
Choosing a Market-(Coverage Strategy
Many factors need considering when choosing a market-coverage strategy. The best strategy depends on company resources. Concentrated marketing makes sense for a firm with limited resources. The best strategy also depends on the degree of product variability. Undifferentiated marketing is suitable for uniform products such as grapefruit or steel. Products that can vary in design, such as cameras and cars, require differentiation or concentration. Consider the product's stage in the life cycle. When a firm introduces a new product, it is practical to launch only one version, and undifferentiated marketing or concentrated marketing therefore makes the most sense. In the mature stage of the product life cycle, however, differentiated marketing begins to make more sense. Another lactor is market variability. Undifferentiated marketing is appropriate when buyers have the same tastes, buy the same amounts and react in the same way to marketing efforts. Finally, competitors' marketing strategies are important. When competitors use segmentation, imdifferentiated marketing can be suicidal. Conversely, when competitors use imdifferentiated marketing, a firm can gain by using differentiated or concentrated marketing.
Summary Sellers can take three approaches to a market. Mass marketing is the decision to mass-produce and mass-distribute one product and attempt to attract all kinds of buyers. Target marketing is the decision to identify the different groups that make up a market and to develop products and marketing mixes for selected target markets. Sellers today are moving away from mass marketing and product differentiation towards target marketing because this approach is more helpful in spotting market opportunities and developing more effective products and marketing mixes. The key steps in target marketing are market segmentation, market targeting and market positioning. Market segmentation is the act of dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers who might merit separate products or marketing mixes. The marketer tries different variables to see which give the best segmentation
417
418
•
Chapter 9
Market Segmentation and Targeting
opportunities. For consumer marketing, the chief segmentation variables are geographic, demographic, psycbographic and behavioural. Business markets segment by business consumer demographics, operating characteristics, buying approaches and personal characteristics. The effectiveness of segmentation analysis depends on finding segments that are measurable, accessible, substantial and actionable. Next, the seller has to target the best market segments. The company first evaluates each segment's size and growth characteristics, structural attractiveness and compatibility with company resources and objectives, it then chooses one of three market-coverage strategies. The seller can ignore segment differences (undifferentiafed marketing), develop different market offers for several segments (differentiated marketing), or go after one or a few market segments (concentrated marketing). Much depends on company resources, product variability, product lifecycle stage and competitive marketing strategies.
Key Terms Accessibility 409 Actionability 409 Behavioural segmentation 396 Benefit segmentation 398 Buyer-readiness stages 400 Concentrated marketing 416 Demographic segmentation 387 Differentiated marketing 416 Gender segmentation 389 Geodemographics 391
Geographic segmentation 385 Income segmentation 389 Individual marketing 383 Life-cycle segmentation 387 Market positioning 379 Market segmentation 379 Market targeting 379 Mass customization 384 Mass marketing 380 Measurability 409
Micro marketing 383 Niche marketing 381 Occasion segmentation 396 Psyehographic segmentation 393 Segment marketing 380 Substantiality 409 Target market 414 Target marketing 379 Undiffevcntiaicd marketing 414
Discussing the Issues 1.
Vhat are the benefits of mass marketing versus market segmentation for a business? Discuss in relation to examples of product and service providers.
the market to locate customers who are willing to pay more for tlicse benefits? 5.
What arc the merits and limitations of differentiated, undifferentiated and concentrated marketing? (Jive examples of product or service providers that have pursued these market coverage strategies. How successful were these strategies?
6.
Financial services providers are looking to segment their markets in the face of greater competition and ever more demanding customers. Would segmentation work for financial services? Show how financial services providers might go about segmenting their markets and implementing selected targeting strategies.
2. What variables are used tor segmenting die market for: fa) casual clothing; (b) beer; and (c) holidays? 3.
4.
The European Union, with its 15 member states, is now viewed as an attractive and distinctive geographic market segment. Do you agree with this view? To what extent can businesses market in the same way to different consumers in member states? What does this imply about market segmentation? Some industrial suppliers make above-average profits by offering service, selection and reliability - at a premium price. How might these suppliers segment
References
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419
Applying the Concepts Thinking about the participants in this course, segment them into different groups (allocate a mnemonic- to each group if you wish). What is your chief segmentation variable? Select several products or services and assess if you could effectively market them to these segments. How effective was your segmentation effort in the first instance?
2.
By looking at advertising and at the products th era selves, we can often see what target segments marketers hope to reach. Find advertisements of several products. Can you gauge what target markets the ads are aimed at? Do you think the products have distinctive target markets? Are some more clearly defined than others?
References 1. Regis MeKcnna, 'Real-time marketing', Harvard Business Review (July-August 1995), p. 87. 2. Edward Baig, 'Platinum cards: move over AmEx'. Business Week (19 August 1996), p. 84. 3. Laurel Cutlet, quoted in 'Stars of the 1980s cast their light', Fortune (3 July 1989), p. 76. 4. Robert E, Linneman and John L. Stanton, Jr, Making Niche Marketing Work: Haw to groiv bigger by acting smaller (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991). 5. See Don Peppers and Martha Rogers, The One-to-One Future: liuiiclins relationships one customer at a time (New York: Currency/Doubleday, 199,3). 6. See 15. Joseph Pine II, iW&ss Customization (Boston. MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1993); B. Joseph Pine II, Don Peppers and Martha Rogers, 'Do you want to keep your customers forever?'. Harvard Business Reviews (March-April 1995), pp 103-14; Christopher W. Hart, 'Made to order', Marketing Management (Summer 1996), pp. 11-22; James H. Gilmore and B. Joseph Pine II, 'The four faces of customization', Harvard Bu.smt'.ss Review (JanuaryFebmary 1997). pp. 91-101. 7. McKemia, 'Real-time marketing', op. cit., p. 87. 8. Jocken Flacking. Mcirketing-Kammunikation ir» Autobitmarkt Kuroptt (Stuttgart: Motor-Presse, 1990). 9. Ian Rogers, Tergesa emerges from the gloom under a new guise'. Financial limes (3 August 1994), p. 21. 10. Marieke De Mooij, Advertising World-wide: Concepts, tftcones and practical multinational and global advertising, 2nd edn (London. Prentice Hall, 1994). 11. 'High street renaissanee', The Economist (16 October 1993), pp. 35-6. 12. David Ulackwell, 'Intelligent as a brick', Financial Times (27 January 1998). p. IS. 13 'Can Europe efjiupete? Ageing Europe1, Financial 7tines (S March 1994), p. 14. 14. See Frieda Cintindale, 'Marketing ears to women', American Demographics (November 1988), pp, 29-31: Betsy Sharkey, The many faces of Eve', Adweek (25 June 1990), pp. 44-9. Thts quote is from 'Automakers learn better roads to women's m&ei', Marketing News (12 October 1992), p. 2. I 15. Alice Rawsthorn, 'LVMH see strong profits growth', Finrnmial limes (18-19 June 1994), p. 11; 1JVMII and Guinness: rearranging their affairs', EuroBusiness (February 1994), p. 6; David Short. 'Xescafe still strongest brew on top shelf,
16. 17.
18 19.
20.
2 I. 22. 23. 24.
25.
26.
27.
The European (22-8 July 1994), p. 22; Ian Harding, 'Takeovers fail to slake Arnault's thirst for a fight', The European (5-11 August 1994), p. 32. Michael Skapinker, 'Cruise industry charts mass-market course', Finaneia/ Times (10 June 1994), p. 1 1 . Graham J. Hooley anil John Maunders., Competitive Positioning (London: Prentiee Hall, 1993); David Tonks, 'Market segmentation', in Michael J. Thomas (ed.), Marketing Handbook (Aldershot: Gower, 1989), pp. 573-87. Itiekley Townsend, 'Psyehographie glitter and gold', American Demographics (November 1985), p. 22. Peter Field and Adam Morgan, 'Hofmeister: a study of advertising and brand imagery in the lager market', in Charles Channon (ed.), 20 Advertising Histories (London: Cassell, 1989), pp. 16-29. For a detailed discussion of personality and buyer behaviour, see Leon (.!. Schifi'man and Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Consumer llel'iavinr, 4th edn (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991), ch. 4. See Laurie Freeman and Cleveland Morton, 'Spree: Honda's scooters ride the cutting edge', Advertising Age (5 September 1985), pp. .1, 35. Mark Maremont. The hottest thing since the flashbulb'. Business Week (7 September 1992). See Seliiffman and Kanuk, ConsumerBehfeui&r, op. eit., p. 48. Jeremy Elliott, 'breaking the bran barrier - Kcllogg's Bran Hakes', in Chamion (ed.), 20Advertising Histories, op. cit., pp. 1-15; Terry Bullen, 'Golden Wonder: a potted success1, in ibid., pp. 178-98. Tor a comprehensive diseussion of loyalty schemes, see Mark Uncles, 'Do you or your customers need a loyalty scheme?', Journal of Targeting,, Measurement and Analysis far Marketing, 2, 4 (1994), pp. 335-50; see also F.F. Reiehheld. 'Loyalty-based management', Harvard Business Review (March-April 1993), pp. 64-73; Andrew S.C. Ehrenberg, 'Locking them in forever', Admap, 28, 11 (1992), p. 14. Martin Howard, 'The praetiealities of developing better analysis and segmentation techniques for fine focusing and improving targeting', Institute for International Research, Conference on Advanced Customer Profiling. Segmentation and Analysis, London, 10 February 1994. See Thomas V. Bonoina and Benson P. Shapiro, Stigmenting the InduNtriul Market (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books,
420 • Chapter 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting
28. 29.
30. 31.
32. 33. 34. 35.
36.
37.
1983). For examples of segmenting business markets, see Kate Bertrand, 'Market segmentation: divide and conquer', Business Marketing (October 1989), pp. 48-54. V. Kasturi Rangan, Rowland T. Moriarty and Gordon S. Swartz, 'Segmenting customers in mature industrial markets', Jo urnal of Marketing (October 1992), pp. 72-82. For another interesting approach to segmenting the business market, see John Berrigan and Carl Finkheiner, Segmentation Marketing: A'cro methods far capturing business (Xew York. Harper Business, 1992). P.O. Walters. 'Global market segmentation and challenges', Journal of Marketing Management, 13, 1-3 (1997), pp. 163-80. Marlene L. Rossman, 'Understanding five nations of Latin America', Marketing News (11 October 1985), p. 10; as quoted in Subhash G. Jain, International Marketing Management, 3rd tdn (Boston, MA: PWS-Kent Publishing, 1990), p. 366. For more on intermarket segmentation, see Jain, International Marketing Management, op. eit., pp. 369-70. Ibid., pp. 370-1. Thomas Ester, 'Deodorant demographies', American Demographics (December 1987), p. 39. Taken from Jens Maier and John Saunders, 'The implementation of segmentation in sales management'. Jnurnal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 10, 1 (1990), pp. 39-48. Gert-Olof Bostrom and Timothy L. Wilson, 'Market segmentation in professional services - ease of CAD adoption amongst architectural firms', European Marketing Academy Proceedings, Barcelona, Spain, 25-8 May 1993, pp. 249-60. Mark Jemkins and Malcolm MaeiJonald, 'Market segmentation: organisational archetypes and research
38.
39.
40. 41.
42.
43.
agendas', European Journal of Marketing, 31, 1 (1997), pp. 17-32; Francisco J Sarabia, 'Model for market segments: evaluation and selection', European Journal of Marketing, 30,1 (1996), pp. 58-74; Erwin Danneels, 'Market segmentation: normative model versus business reality: an explanatory study of the apparel market in Belgium', European Journal of Marketing, 30, 12 (1996), pp. 39-49. See Joe Schwartz, 'Southpaw strategy', American Demographies (June 1988), p. 61; and 'Few companies tailor products for lefties', Wall S!reet Journal (2 August 19S9), p. 2. For an example of how customer profitability can be used to determine target segments in the Scandinavian banking industry, see K Slorbacka, 'Segmentation based on customer profitability - retrospective analysis of retail banking customer bases', Journal f>f Marketing Management, 13, S (1997), pp. 479-93. See Michael Porter, Competitive Advantage (New York: Free Press, 1985), pp. 4-8, 234-6 The methods are introduced in S.I.Q. Robinson, R.E. Hitehins and D.P. Wade, 'The directional poliey matrix: tool for strategic planning', Long Range Planning, 11,3 (1978), pp. 8-15; Yoram Wind and Vejay Mahajan, 'Designing product and business portfolios'. Barnard Kusiuess Review (January-February 1981), pp. 155-65. They are reviewed in Robin Wenslcy, 'Strategic marketing; boxes, betas or basics', Journal of Marketing, 45, 3 (Summer 1981), pp. 173-82. Angelika Dreher, Angelika Ritter and Hans Muhlbacher, 'Systematic positioning: a new approach and its application'. European Marketing Academy Proceedings, Aarhus, Denmark, 26-9 May 1992, pp. 313-29. Rein Rijkens, European Advertising Strategies (London: Casseil, 1992), pp. 121-32.
Case 9 Coffee-Mate Andy Hirst* and John Saunders THE COFFEE CREAMER MARKET GREW consistently, following its introduction in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s, to approximately £25 million in 1995. In volume terms, however, the creamer market is small, with a household penetration of 18 per cent. Coffee-Mate has dominated the market since its launch as a result of a strong brand and consistent advertising. Despite the growth of private labels in the late 1980s, Coffee-Mate's increased advertising spending (from £400,000 to £1.5 million) has enabled it to squeeze both private label and other brands (Exhibits 9.1 and 9.2).
' The Business School, Lough borough University,
Case 9: Coffee-Mate
EXHIBIT 9.1 MEDIA ADVERTISING ON MILK (£OOOs) Cadbury Carnation Coffee-Mate Carnation Evaporated Carnation Light Skimmed DCNI Fresh 'n' Low Kerrygold Light Skimmed MMB Cans NDC NDC Milk Race Nestle TipTop SMCP Others
616 1,482 398 166 173 157 211 286 10,427 1,664 1,443 703 211
Source; MEAL.
EXHIBIT 9.2 VOLUME BRAND SHARES (%) BRAND Coffee-Mate - total: Standard Lite Compliment Kenco Compleat Own label All others
SHARE 55.5 41.0 14.5 2.6 3.0 1.4 37.3 0.3
Competition in the Coffee ('reamer Market
The coffee creamer market is distinct from the instant dry milk market, which includes brands such as Marvel, St Ivel Five Pints and Pint Size, which, although worth £43 million, has seen a 25 per cent decline since 1988. Dried or powdered milk had been associated with slimming (e.g. Marvel adopted this positioning). The availability of low-fat, skimmed and semi-skimmed milks has had a substantial impact upon sales in this sector. Dried/instant milk, used for its convenience and low COSE, has shown a 6 per cent decline in value sales in real terms consequent upon the increased availability of skimmed milk. Dried or powdered milk is not a direct substitute for coffee creamers because of its poor mixing qualities. It is used as a whitener in tea or coffee only in emergency situations in which the household has run out or run low on supplies of milk. The dynamics of the coffee creamer market appear to be undergoing a change in parallel with consumers' developing tastes for skimmed and semiskimmed milk in their coffee. Milk is the most popular whitener for coffee. Although cream is thought to be the best whitener, it represents an aspirational flavour goal only for some. Most consumers perceive cream as a reserved, ritualistic practice, whose taste, while appropriate for an occasion, is not to be replicated on a daily basis. Powdered or dried milk is a distress product, used only in emergency situations. As such, the brands are bought, but the product is only tolerated. Creamers are regarded more as an indulgence and treat by users, although
•
421
422
Chapter 9 Market Segmentation nnd Targeting non-users did not see creamers as anything like a substitute for cream and were generally highly negative and suspicious of the product (consumers' and non-users' perceptions of the product category1 will be described in a later section). Coffee-Mate is a blend of dried glucose and vegetable fat, but cannot be legally defined as non-dairy, since it also contains milk derivatives. Recent improvements to the product include the relaunch of Coffee-Mate 100 g and 200 £ in straight-sided glass jars with paper labels, and a 'Nidoll-con toured' jar with shrink-wrapped label. Packs of 500 g and 1 kg are available in cartons with an inner bag. At the end of 1990, Coffee-Mate Lite, a low-fat alternative to Coffee-Mate, was introduced. Cannibalization of volume has been minimal. The volume generated by Lite has been a key feature in the development of the brand, which has experienced a 10 per cent growth in sales volume in the first three years following Lite's launch. Coffee-Mate Consumer The demographic profile of Coffee-Mate and Lite buyers is summarized in Exhibit 9.3. The average Coffee-Mate consumer buys 1.5 kg annually. AGE iSuperpanel data suggest that buyers of Coffee-Mate tend to use all brands and types of coffee. The market is characterized by its low interest level, since most buyers do not see it as a weekly shopping item. The main reason given by respondents for not purchasing Coffee-Mate is preference tor milk in their coffee: as many as one-third of non-users gave this as their reason for rejecting the product. An equally high proportion of the non-users simply have no reason to purchase, because they don't drink coffee, drink it black, or simply have no need to use the creamer. Reasons given spontaneously for lapsed usage were very similar to the main ones articulated by non-users: 50 per cent of respondents stated that they preferred milk in coffee, while around 21 per cent said that they don't drink coffee, drink it black or don't think to buy creamers (Exhibit 9.4).
EXHIBIT 9.3
COFFEE CREAMER BUYERS: DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE
PRODUCT
PROFILE
Coffee creamers
No strong demographic bias. Slightly skewed towards 45-64-year-olds, 2-person households and households without children.
Coffee-Mate - std
Slight bias towards C2, DE and 45+ households as heavier buyers; 2—3-person households and households with children. Slightly biased towards 45-64-year-olds, full-time working housewives, and households without children.
Coffee-Mate Lite
EXHIBIT 9.4 REASONS FOR LAPSING AND REJECTION (NUMBER or RESPONDENTS) SPONTANEOUS RESPONSE Don't drink coffee Drink black coffee Prefer milk Prefer skimmed milk Don't like them Leaves coffee too hot
LAPSING 11 5 50 5 10 2
REJECTION
22
6 33
3 18 1
Case 9.- Coffee-Mute
No need to use them Don't think to buy them Doesn't mix Prefer pure things Fattening Too rich/creamy Other Don't know
5 1 4
4
S 4 1 3 2 2 3 9
409
664
4
2 1 5
Total sample
Because Coffee-Mate and Coffee-Mate Lite are 'consumed' with coffee, popularity and demand will also be affected by the annual coffee consumption in the United Kingdom, which has been static at under 3 kg per head since 1985, compared with over 5 kg in Italy, France and Germany, and well below countries like Finland and the Netherlands with 11-13 kg. Exhibit 9,5 shows the trend in coffee consumption in the UK. The National Food Survey (K1U Retail Business 1992) suggests that the higher a household's income, the more it spends on coffee (Exhibit 9.6). Childless households are the most intense coffee drinkers (Exhibit 9.7).
EXHIBIT 9.5 COFFEE CONSUMPTION (CUPS/PERSON/DAY) YEAR
1970
1981
1990
1995
Anv coffee Instant coffee Ground coffee Special coffee Food beverage Choc/cocoa
1.22 1.07 0.01 0.09 0.10
1.54 1.39 0.13 0.06 0-07
1.57 1.39 0.14 0.06 0.07
1.48 1.34 0.12 0.10 0.04 0.07
SOURCE: National Food Survey.
EXHIBIT 9.6 CONSUMPTION' BY INCOME GROUP (PER PERSON/WEEK) WEEKLY INCOME (£)
CONSUMPTION (g)
EXPENDITURE (P)
645+ 475-644 250-474 125-249 0-124 125+ (no earners) 0-125 (no earners) OAPs
2.60 1.79 1.76 1.54 1.62 3.08 1.65 1.76
25.20 19.30 20.03 18.20 17.24 32.19 19.41 18.64
Soi'RfiE: National Food Survey.
For both users and non-users, consumers' perceptions, attitudes towards and motivations behind usage of whiteners and creamers vary. Overall, consumers display a relatively clear understanding of the whitener marker, which they tend to define under two headings: dried or powdered milks, and wkiteners.
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Chupter 9 Market Segmentation and Targeting
EXHIBIT 9.7 CONSUMPTION BY HOUSEHOLD SIZE (PER PERSON/WEEK) NUMBER OP ADULTS
1 ]
2 2
2 2 2 3 3+ 3+ 4+
CHILDREN
0 1+ 0 1 2
3 4+
0 1-2 3+ 0
CONSUMPTION a iirra targets mothers', Marketing Week (1 October 1994), p. 9; 'Dip into the future, t'aras cyborg eye can see: and wince', Tim Economise (3 January 1997), pp. 81-3; 'Computing: that's entertainment', Wiiich? (December 1997); Henry's Virtual Pet Cemetery (/hmai. ho me. mi ndsring.com).
Figure 10.2 shows the returns to be had from differentiation. It shows results taken from the Profit Implications of Marketing Strategy (P1MH) study of American and European firms.s This study shows that firms with the lowest return on investment (KOI) operate in commodity markets where there is no differentiation on quality or anything else, such as the coal industry. Where there is room for differentiation, losers have inferior quality (Aeroflot) and more returns than winners (KLM). The most highly performing group of companies are 'power companies', which have superior quality in differentiate markets (BMW, Bertelsmann and Nokia). These are ahead of nichers (local airlines), which score lower on quality and ROI than the 'power companies'. According to PIMS, the 'power companies' often have a high market share, since quality, share and KOI are interrelated. Differentiation may be harder in some industries than others, but creative firms have shown that any market can be differentiated. 6 Pew people see the brick market as exciting, but one briek company found a way of getting a competitive
advantage. Bricks used to be delivered to building sites in a truck that tipped them on to the ground. In the process many bricks got broken or lost. Workers on the site also had to spend time stacking the bricks. The brick company's idea was to put the bricks on pallets that were lifted off the truck by a small integral crane. The idea was so successful that soon all bricks came that way. The firm's next idea was to carry a small off-the-road fork-lift truck with the bricks, so that it could deliver them to the exact spot where the site manager wanted them. Oil is a stalemate industry, but Shell remains the leading petroleum retailer by understanding that fuel is a distress purchase that people do not enjoy. They succeed by making their petrol stations easy to use and paying attention to all the other reasons people srop on a journey: to find their way, get a snack, make a phone call or go to a clean toilet. Differential advantages can be transient. Some companies find many major advantages that are easily copied by competitors and are, therefore, highly perishable. This is particularly true in financial services, where successful ideas are quickly followed by competitors. The Bank of Scotland's Direct Line insurance company succeeded by offering an economic and high-quality personal insurance service through television advertising and telephone selling. It was so successful that established insurers had to follow. Zurich Insurance intends to attack the conservative German and Italian insurance markets in the same way,7 The solution for companies facing the erosion of their advantage is to keep identifying new potential advantages and to introduce them one by one to keep competitors off balance. These companies do not expect to gain a single substad tial permanent advantage. Instead, they hope to manage a series of advantages that will increase their share over time. This is how market leaders like Microsoft, Intel, Sony and Gillette have held their position for so long. The true competitive advantage of these firms is their market knowledge, technological expertise, creativity and entreprcneurship, which give them the ability to develop products quickly.
Differentiating Markets In what specific ways can a company differentiate its offer from those of competitors V A company or market offer can be differentiated along the lines of product, services, personnel or image.
Differentiation • 439
• Product Differentiation A company ean differentiate its physical produet. At one extreme, some companies offer highly standardized products that allow little variation: ehicken, steel and aspirin. Yet even here, some meaningful differentiation is possible. For Kample, Perdue claims that its branded chickens are better - fresher and more tender - and gets a 10 per cent price premium based on this differentiation. Other companies offer products that can be highly differentiated, such as cars, commercial buildings and furniture. Here the company faces an abundance of design parameters.11 It ean offer a variety of standard or optional features not provided by competitors. Thus Volvo provides new and better safety features, while Lufthansa offers wider seats to business-class flyers. In the United Kingdom, 1iitbread has targeted its chain of Brewers Fay re pubs at families. Besides the usual food and drink, most Brewers Fayres have a toddlers' area, a play zone for bigger children and a 'Charlie Chalk Fun Factory - a large self-contained area full of games, toys and adventure equipment'. Companies can also differentiate their products on performance. Whirlpool designs its dishwasher to run more quietly; Unilever formulates Radios to remove odours as well as dirt from washing. Style and design can also be important differentiating factors. Thus many ear buyers pay a premium for Jaguar cars because of their extraordinary look, even though Jaguar has sometimes had a poor reliability record. Similarly, companies can differentiate their products on such attributes as consistency, durability, reliability or repairability.
• Services Differentiation In addition to differentiating its physical product, the firm can also differentiate the services that accompany the produet. Some companies gain competitive advantage through speedy, reliable or careful delivery. Harrods, the luxury retailer, delivers
to its customers using replica vintage vans — a service particularly popular ai Christinas, At the other end of the scale. Domino's Pizza promises delivery in less to 30 minutes or reduces the price. Installation can also differentiate one company from another, IBM, for' example, is known for its quality installation service. It delivers all pieces ol purchased equipment to the site at one time, rather than sending individual components to sit mid wait for others to arrive. And when asked to movt IBM equipment and install it in another location, IBM often moves competitors' equipment as well. Companies can further distinguish themselves through their repair services. Many a car buyer would gladly pay a little more and travel a little further to buy a car from a dealer that provides top-notch repair service. Some companies differentiate their offers by providing a customer training service. For instance, General Electric not only sells and installs expensive X-ray equipment in hospitals, but also trains the hospital employees who will use the equipment. Other companies offer free or paid consulting services - data, information systems and advice services that buyers need. For example, reinsurance company M & G provides information and advice to its customers. It also provides specialist help in developing new products. Companies can find many other ways to add value through differentiated services. In fact, they can choose from a virtually unlimited number of specific services and benefits through which to differentiate themselves from tlie competition. Milliken & Company provides one of the best examples of a company that has gained competitive advantage through superior service: Milliken sells shop towels to industrial launderers who rent them to factories. These towels are physically similar to competitors' towels. Yet J Milliken charges a higher price for its towels and enjoys the leading market share. How can it charge more for essentially a commodity? The answer is that Milliken continuously 'decommoditizes' this product through continuous service enhancement for its launderer customers. Milliken trains its customers' salespeople; supplies prospect leads and sales promotional material to them; supplies on-line computer order entry and freight optimization systems; carries on marketing research for customers; sponsors quality improvement workshops; and lends its salespeople to work with customers on Customer Action Teams. Launderers are more than willing to buy Milliken shop towels and pay a price premium because the extra semces improve their profitability,9 Speed of service is a competitive advantage used by many firms. Fast food is now common on the world's high streets and malls, along with semces like onehour photo processing and Vision Express's one-hour service for spectacles. These services provide a direct benefit to customers by giving rapid gratification and allowing services to be completed within one shopping trip. Speed also helps sell more expensive goods. Abbey National found that its success in providing large mortgages depended upon how fast it could confirm that it would give a person a home loan. It responded by allowing local managers to make loan decisions rather than processing applications centrally. In the car market Toyota's two-day policy means that it can supply a well-equipped Lexus within two days, while many other luxury car makers expect prospects to wait several weeks for custom-built cars. The success of courier services like TNT and DHL shows that many people are willing to pay extra for a quick, secure service. A study of the importance of service responsiveness to users of small business-computer-based systems shows how speed is valued:
Dijferen tiation •
Eighty-five per cent of users were willing to pay a 10 per cent premium price for same-day service; 60 per cent would pay 20 per cent more; and 40 per cent would pay a 30 per cent premium. • On average, same-day service was worth twice as much as brand name and distributor reputation, and worth four times more than technical features.10
• Personnel Differentiation. • ',/ Companies can gain a strong competitive advantage through hiring and training better people than their competitors do. Singapore Airlines enjoys an excellent reputation largely because of the grace of its flight attendants, McDonald's people are courteous, IBM people are professional and knowledgeable, and Mark Warner's resort staff are friendly and upbeat. Marks & Spencer helps differentiate its stores by careful selection, training and looking after its staff. Personnel differentiation requires that a company should select its customercontact people carefully and train them well. These personnel must be competent they must possess the required skills and knowledge. They need to be courteous, friendly and respectful. They must serve customers with consistency and accuracy. And they must make an effort to understand customers, to communicate dearly with them, and to respond quickly to customer requests and problems. The Allied Breweries links staff needs to the market segments they serve. A segmentation study identified four pub segments in the United Kingdom (see Table 10.1) and the managers needed to run them. Local community pubs needed a good controller who was mature and experienced. He or she had to be 'one of the crowd', be involved in the local community and be an organizer of pub teams and other events. The personality of the manager is the key to success of broad-based locals. They need to maintain a high profile and set the mood of the pub and other staff. Young persons'circuit pubs need good organizers who are tolerant but firm. These places are very busy at peak times, so service standards have to be high and efficient. Users of quality traditional dry pubs expect attention to detail and high professional standards. Good food is important, so the manager's job is more complicated than for other pubs. The manager may not have a strong personality, but organizational and financial skills are important.
• Image, Differentiation Even when competing offers look the same, buyers may perceive a difference based on company or brand images. Thus companies work to establish images that differentiate them from competitors. A company or brand image should convey a singular and distinctive message that communicates the product's main benefits and positioning. Developing a strong and distinctive image calls for creativity and hard work. A company cannot implant an image in the public's mind overnight using only a few advertisements. If 'IBM means service', this image must be supported by everything the company says and does. Symbols can provide strong company or brand recognition and image differentiation. Companies design signs and logos that provide instant recognition. They associate themselves with objects or characters that symbolize quality or other attributes, such as the Mercedes star, the Johnnie Walker character, the Miehelin man or the Lecostc crocodile. The company might build a brand around some famous person, as with perfumes such as Passion (Elizabeth Taylor) and Uninhibited (Cher), Koine companies even become associated with colours, such as Kodak (yellow) or Benson & Hedges (gold). The chosen symbols must be communicated through advertising that conveys the company or brand's personality. The ads attempt to establish a story
441
442 • Chapter JO Positioning
Table 10.1 I
Allied Breweries pub segments YOUNG PEKSONS' CIRCUIT PUB
QUALITY TRADITIONAL
Housing estates
Town centre or suburban high street
Prosperous villages or remote country sites
Generally males of all ages
Men and women aged 18 to 44
Aged 18 to 24. Single sex groups at lunch-time
Aged 35 plus as couples or with family Managerial and professional
Customer geography
Local
Work within a mile of the pub
From 5-mile radius
Five miles or over
Pub journey
Walk
Walk or car
Public transport
Car
Consumer behaviour
Price conscious, -shop locally, hut do not drink at home
Price conscious, like pub games
Fjishioneonscious and like background noise
Dislike pub games and background noise
Readership
Popular newspapers
Popular newspapers
Music press
Quality newspapers
Thirty per cent standard lager and white spirits
Beer, wine and whisky
Standard lagers plus some premium lagers and spirits
Drinks only 60 per cent of sales
Basic lunch-lime sandwiches
A little more than the local community pubs
Little
Appreciate good food
SEGMENT Location
Customer demographics
i Drinks
Food
LOCAL COMMUNITY7 PUB
BROAD-BASED
Public housing estates or old terraced housing
LOCAL
DRY PUB
line, a mood, a performance level - something distinctive about the company or brand. The atmosphere of the physical space in which the organization produces or delivers its products and services can be another powerful image generator. Hyatt hotels has become known for its atrium lobbies and TGI Friday's restaurants for American memorabilia. Thus a bank that wants to distinguish itself as the 'friendly bank' must choose the right building and interior design - layout, colours, materials and furnishings - to reflect these qualities.
Wliat is Market Positioning? • 443
A company can also create an image through the types of event it sponsors. Perriur, the bottled water company, became known by laying out exercise tracks and sponsoring health sports events. Other organizations have identified themselves closely with cultural events, such as orchestral performances and art exhibits. Still other organizations support popular causes. For example, Heinz gives money to hospitals and Quaker gives food to the homeless.
What is Market Positioning? A product's position is the way the product is defined by consumers on important attributes - the place the product occupies in consumers' minds relative to competing products. Thus Tide is positioned as a powerful, all-purpose family detergent, Radion removes odours, and Fairy is gentle. Skoda and Subaru are positioned on economy, Mercedes and Jaguar on luxury, and Porsche. Saab and BMW on performance. A firm's competitive advantage and its product's position can be quite different. A competitive advantage is the strength of a company, while a product's position is a prospect's perception of a product. A competitive advantage, like low costs or high quality, could influence a product's position, but in many cases it is not central to it. For instance, low costs and access to Heathrow are two of British Airways' competitive advantages, but its position is based on popularity and its global network, 'The world's favourite airline'. Similarly, Toyota's low costs are a significant competitive advantage, but its products are sold on quality and technical excellence, not price. Consumers are overloaded with information about products and services. They cannot re-evaluate products every time they make a buying decision. To simplify buying decision making, consumers organize products into categories -
product position The way the product is defined by consumers on important attributes the plave the product occupies in consumers' minds relative to competing products.
444 • Chapter 10 Positioning Positioning; when-yon think of car safety, what brand comes to mind? Volvo has positioned itself powerfully tm stxfety.
dmi* J-iTJ M - l b r I •• MiuHiMi-l MIT .'*= Mim.iL
that is, they 'position' products, services and companies in their minds. A product's position is the complex set of perceptions, impressions and feelings that consumers hold for the product compared with competing products. Consumers position products with or without the help of marketers. But marketers do not want to leave their products' positions to chance. They plan positions that will give their products the greatest advantage in selected target markets, and they design marketing mixes to create these planned positions. Positioning was popularized by advertising executives Al Ries and Jack Trout.11 They saw it as a creative exercise done with an existing product: Positioning starts with a product, a piece of merchandise, a service, a company, an institution or even a person .. But positioning is not about what you do to a product. Positioning is what you do to the mind of the prospect. That is, you position products in the mind of the prospect. They argue that current products generally have a position in the minds of consumers. Thus Rolex is thought of as the world's top watch, Coca-Cola as the world's largest soft-drink company, Porsche as one of the world's best sports cars, and so on. These brands own those positions and it would be hard for a competitor to steal them. Ries and Trout show how familiar brands can acquire some distinct!veness in an 'overcommuiiicated society', where there is so much advertising that consumers screen out most of [he messages. A consumer can only know about seven soft drinks, even though there are many more on the market. Even then, the mind often knows them in the form of a product ladder, such as Coke > Pepsi > Fanta or Hertz > Avis > Budget. In such a ladder, the second firm usually has half the business of the first firm, and the third firm enjoys half the business of the second firm. Furthermore, the top firm is remembered best. People tend to remember no. 1. For example, when asked, 'Who was the first person successfully to fly the Atlantic Ocean?, people usually answer, 'Charles
What is Market Positioning? Lindbergh'. When asked, 'Who was the second person to do it?', they draw a blank. That is why companies fight for the no. 1 position. In reality, the first people to fly the Atlantic were Alcock and Brown, but Charles Lindbergh won the publicity batde. Ries and Trout point out that the 'size' position can be held by only one brand. What counts is to achieve a no. 1 position along some valued attribute, not necessarily 'size'. Thus 7-Up is the no. 1 'Uncola', Porsche is the no. 1 small sports car and Foster's is Australia's top-selling lager. In the United States, Heineken is 'the1 imported beer because it was the first heavily promoted imported beer. The marketer should identify an important attribute or benefit that can convincingly be won by the brand. In that way brands hook the mind in spite of the incessant advertising bombardment reaching consumers. According to Ries and Trout, there are three positioning alternatives; 1. The first strategy they suggest is to strengthen a brand's current position in the mind of consumers. Thus Avis took its second position in the car rental business and made a strong point about it: 'We're number two. We try harder,' This was believable to the consumer. 7-Up capitalized on not being a cola soft drink by advertising itself as the Uncola. 2. Their second strategy is to search for a new unoccupied position that is valued by enough consumers and grab it: 'Gherehez le creneau', 'Look for the hole'. Find a hole in the market and fill it, they say. Vidal Bassoon's Wash & do was based on recognizing that the fashion for exercise meant that people washed their hair frequently, quickly and away from home. By combining a shampoo and hair conditioner in one the company was able to fill a latent market need. Similarly, after recognizing that many housewives wanted a strong washing powder to treat smelly clothes, Unilever successfully launched Radion. Across Europe new 'newspapers' have filled a down-market gap left by the traditional press. In Britain the Sunday Sport started as a weekly paper reporting on sensationalist stories — 'Double decker bus found in iceberg' sport and sex, but has now grown into a daily paper. In France the new Infos du Monde reached sales of 240.000 a week after just two months. 'Our readers don't want 'dirty' news', says Infos. It instead seeks the hixarre in ordinary life; fairground freaks are popular - 'Four-legged woman from Cannes looks for love'. Another sensationalist publication is the German-owned Void, a glossy scandal sheet full of show-biz personalities. Infas has sent some of its staff to the United States to learn from their Weekly World News, a maga/jne specialising in blood, sex and gore. Some newspaper vendors arc embarrassed about the newspapers and the established press sees the new publications as distasteful. They also worry about the disturbing misinformation they monger. But, as a Gare du Nord news kiosk seller says: 'If people lead such dull and boring lives that their day is brightened by reading about a man with an axe stuck in his head, what's wrong with that?' 12 3. Their third strategy is to deposition or reposition the competition. Most US buyers of dimierware thought that Lenox china and Royal Doulton both came from England. Royal Doulton countered with ads showing that Lenox china is from New Jersey, but theirs came from England. In a similar vein, Stoliclmaya vodka attacked Smirnoff and Wolfschmidt vodka by pointing out that these brands were made locally, but 'Stolichnaya is different. Similarly, it is Russian.' Guinness, the world's leading brown ale, has strong Irish associations. However, the focus on individuality in its Rutger Hauer 'Pure Genius' campaign has allowed Murphy's and Beamish to attack Guinness's
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Floppy disk versus the Zip disk. H side by side compandor
Irish heritage. A final example is Kaliher no-alcohol beer drunk by people who want a good time or, as Billy Connolly says in its ads posted next to those for Wunderbra, 'Hello girls!' Ries and Trout essentially deal with the psychology of positioning - or repositioning - a current brand in the consumer's mind. They acknowledge that the positioning strategy might call for changes in the product's name, price and packaging, but these are 'cosmetic changes done for the purpose of securing a worthwhile position - in the prospect's mind'.
Perceptual Mapping perceptual maps A product positioning tool that uses mu hidimensional scaling of consumers' perceptions and preferences to portray the psychological distance between products and segments.
Perceptual maps are a valuable aid to product positioning. These maps use multidimensional scaling of perceptions and preferences that portray psychological distance between products and segments, using many dimensions. They contrast with conventional maps that use two dimensions to show the physical distance between objects. Physical and psychological maps of die same items can be quite different. Disneyland in California and Disney's Magic Kingdom in Florida are thousands of kilometres apart physically, but psychologically close together. In their simplest form, perceptual maps use two dimensions. For example, Figure 10.3 shows the average -value /or money and accessibility rating of European holiday destinations.11 The perceptual map shows that France, Germany and the Netherlands, which are physically close together, are also psychologically close holiday destinations using these two criteria. In contrast,
Perceptual Mapping
Spain and the United Kingdom are psychologically close together, but are physically distant. France i.s Europe's most popular holiday destination and this map partly shows why; it offers the best value for money among the accessible nations. The lack of destinations in the high value for money and easy access quadrant suggests a chsrches Ic creneau positioning opportunity for new destinations. Hungary and the Czech Republic could fill the hole in the market. Of course, holiday makers have a more complicated view of destinations Chan the two-dimensional map suggests. And if the map had other dimensions, it would change: for instance, adding weather would certainly separate Spain and the United Kingdom. Multidimensional sealing produces maps that show many dimensions at the same time (Figure 10.4). To read these maps, trace baek the individual dimensions one at a time. For example, the perception is that Switzerland has good facilities; Germany and Sweden quite good ones; Denmark, the Netherlands and Norway average ones; and the United Kingdom, Spain and Ireland poor facilities. Finland has an extreme position on the map. Prospective travellers see its people &s friendly and hospitable, while the country is a unique and different place with wild areas, beautiful scenery and peace and quiet. More negatively, travellers do not perceive Finland as accessible, or as a place for entertainment, or as a cultural experience. The perceptual map shows how holidaymakers segment, as well as the possible destinations. A, the largest segment, wants cheap, sunshine holidays and liked Spain. Segment C, who represented 15 per cent of the sample population,
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Figure 10.3
Two-dimensional perceptual maps of European tourist destinations
are a natural target market for Finland. They want peaceful, quiet holidays in places with beautiful scenery. Norway is already successful at marketing these 'hack to nature' ideals as 'natural tourism'.14 The target group mainly consists of high-income couples or families with one child who organize their holidays themselves. They are mainly Dutch, German or Scandinavian, hut half have never visited Finland. To attract this segment the Finnish Tourist Board does not need massively to reposition Finland as a holiday destination. It needs to promote the country us the segment sees it, while reducing the perception that it is an inaccessihlc plaee. Promoting luxury car ferries that allow travellers to start their holiday with a relaxing cruise across the Baltic Sea would be one way of doing this. Strangely, Barbados has a similar positioning problem to Finland as a holiday destination. Europeans perceive the Caribbean island as a millionaire's playground that is a long way away. In response, Barbados tries to reposition itself by promoting 'Barbados. It's closer than you think .. A sunshine holiday there can cost as little as one of Europe's premier resorts.' (Marketing Highlight 10.2 gives more advice on how to develop perceptual maps.)
Positioning Strategies Marketers can follow several positioning .strategies. These strategies use associations to change consumers' perception of products. Product attrilmtes position many technical products. The positioning of Ericssons EH237 mobile phone is its Low weight and number $ features, while much of BMW's advertising promotes individual technical items- like fresh air filters. In the exclusive watch market Breitling. Baume & Mercier and Audemars Piguet's positioning are on their mechanical movements. Some of their designs leave the mechanisms exposed and one ad argues 'Since 1735 there has never been a quartz Rlanepain. And there never will be.' The benefits they offer or the needs they fill position many products - Crest toothpaste reduces cavities. Aim tastes good and Macleans Sensitive relieves the pain of sensitive teeth. In the confectionery industry, Italian Gaci and Ferrero Rocher are gifts, while Mars and Snickers bars satisfy hunger. Huhtamaki is Finland's largest industrial company but LEAF, its confectionery division, is only ten in size worldwide. It developed competitive advantage in 'functional chewing and bubble gums'. Its
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Figure 10.4
Internal property-fitting analysis using PREFMAP
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Building Perceptual Maps of Markets Ttie most important part of perceptual mapping is collecting the right data in the right way, This marketing highlight takes you through the stages of data collection and introduces ways of making perceptual maps.
Marketing
Defining the Competitors
Defining the competition is not a trivial task, since perceptual mapping is about how consumers see markets and this may differ from the map maker's view. For instance, the Range Rover is a four-wheel-drive cross-country vehicle, yet research shows that customers see it as an alternative to a Volvo, large BMW or Mercedes-Benz, or even a Porsche or Rolls Royce. One way of defining competitors is to look at consumers' consideration set. For consumer non-durables, customers are asked what other brands they considered in their buying process. This could show the present tendency for customers to buy soda water and tonic water - traditionally mixers - as an alternative to mineral water or other soft drinks A more exhaustive way of mapping product markets uses a series of interviews. {1} Start by asking respondents the use context of a product - say, a low-alcohol lager. (2) For each use context identified - such as the lunch-time snack or at a bar - respondents identify all alternative drinks. (3) For each drink identified, the respondent has to identify an appropriate use context. The process continues until there is a full list of contexts and drinks. (4) A second group of respondents then judges how appropriate each drink would be for each usage situation. If both low-alcohol lager and coke were appropriate for a company lunch-time snack, but inappropriate for an evening meal, they are direct competitors.
The Competitive Dimensions
and ask them to state which two are alike but unlike the third. 'Tonic water and Perrier are alike but different from Pepsi Max' could be the answer. (2) Ask how tonic water and Perrier are alike. The answer could be: 'low calorie and natural'. These factors are labelled the emergent pole. 'Youthful' could be the answer to the question why Pepsi Max is different from the other two. That answer is the implicit pole. (3) Sort the stimuli (Pepsi Max, Schweppes Soda Water, Perrier and other drinks) equally between the two poles. (4) Select another three stimuli and repeat the process until the respondents can think of no new reasons whv the triad are alike or dissimilar.
Highlight 10.2
Kelly grids are a popular market research technique that identifies the dimensions underlying a market. (1) Give respondents three stimuli (say. Pepsi Max, Schweppes Soda Water and Perrier)
Determine the Competitors'Positions
It is an odd feature of many of the techniques used in positioning research that the competitors' positions appear before understanding how customers differentiate between them. For example, in similarities-based multidimensional scaling, respondents sort a stack of cards that contain pairs of competing products: for instance, card one could read 'Pepsi Max and Coca-Cola'; card two, Terrier and 7-Up'; card three, 'Pepsi Max and Dr Pepper', and so on. Then ask the respondents to rank the pairs according to their similarity, the pair most alike on the top and the pair most unalike on the bottom. Since this can be a rather cumbersome process, it is best first to ask respondents to stack the cards into three piles representing those pairs that arc very similar, those pairs that are very unalike and a middling group, The respondents then rank the pairs within each group. The objective is to develop a plot of the stimuli (drinks) that shows those that people saw as similar close together and those that respondents said were dissimilar far apart. Although this is a difficult task to conduct manually, computers are adept at finding solutions and there are many computer packages that can be used, KYST produces perceptual maps from the similarities matrix provided and many sorts of data. Figure 1 shows Pepsi Max and Coca-Cola positioned well
Perecprual Mapping
away from the economic drink, tap water. Noticeably. Perrier has also distanced itself from tap water, hence its premium price. Adding Competitive Dimensions and Customers To find out how the dimensions fit the perceptual map, respondents rate each drink on the basis of the attributes identified. The result is another series of matrices that are difficult to analyze manually, and again, computers must come to our aid: in this case, a package called PREFMAP takes the perceptual map of product positions and fits the dimensions as they best describe the respondents' perceptions. A two-stage process adds customer positions to the drinks map. First, respondents rate the drinks on their preference. Cluster analysis then segments those respondents with similar preferences (see Marketing Highlight 9.4 to find out about this), which indicates the presence of three main clusters. Analysis of their demographic characteristics shows these clusters to be: young professionals, who found Perricr and Schweppes most attractive; family buyers, who preferred own brands; and teenagers, attracted by Pepsi Max and Coke.
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Again. PREFMAP can locate these segments on the product map. Alternative Ways of Mapping In developing positioning maps, researchers are spoilt for choice by the number of approaches available. PREFMAP can combine the identification of the perceptual map of product positions and underlying dimensions. This program would require respondents to rate drinks along each of the dimensions, such as 'exciting' or 'natural', and would then involve aggregating the results to arrive directly at a map. Correspondence analysis is another method that is now widely acclaimed by practitioners. It is popular because it makes maps using cross-tabulated data that often already exist.
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452 • Chapter 10 Positioning Xylitol Jenkki Xylifresh, probably 'the world's most researched chewing gum', has been used as a reference standard by medical schools measuring dental hygiene. T.EAF's other functional gums include BenBits ExtraFresh and Fresh 4 Ever breath fresheners, and vitamin-enriched E.Z.C- Its sugar-bused confectionery includes vitamin-enriched +Energi and Liikerol throat soother. Usage occasions position many products. Mentadcnt Night Action toothpaste, for instance, is for evening use. Tn the summer, Gatorade is positioned as a drink for replacing athletes' body fluids; in the winter, it can be positioned as the drink to use when the doctor recommends plency of liquids. KitKat and After Eight mints sell alongside Snickers and Ferrero Rocher, but the positioning is on usage occasion. Internationally, KitKat means 'Have a break', while After Eight is an after-dinner mint to share. Red Bull, a soft drink made by a small Austrian company, is a huge success in Germany and is rolling out across Europe. According to its sales director; 'We don't want to be compared with the soft drink market. Of course, Red Bull has quite a key position in the market, hut it is mainly a sports drink.' Red Bull's origin is in die huge Japanese market for energy drinks. Each can has 80 milligrams of caffeine, a third more than the equivalent amount of Coca-Cola. This has made the drink popular with teetotaller young ravers who can consume several cans a night.15 L'ser.s help position products. Johnson & Johnson improved the market share for its baby shampoo from 3 per cent to 14 per cent by repositioning the product towards a new user category of adults who wash their hair frequently and need a gentle shampoo. Often products are positioned by associating them with their user class. Nescafe Gold Blend increased sales dramatically after showing a series of ads romancing thirty somethings, as did Tango soft drinks as a result of the youthful 'You've been Tangoed' campaign. Woolworth's gives its products credibility among teenagers by using and promoting successful young people as models Sega champion Karl Roberts; rapper and dance champion Jermaine Emmanuel; mountain bike champion Zoe Read. Activities are often used to sell expensive products. The Geneva-based SMH group positions its watches using sports. Thus Rado has come to specialize in tennis, Omega in sailing and aerospace, 'the first and only watch on the moon', and Longines in skiing and aviation. 16 This positioning activity goes beyond advertising and promotions. Rolex positions its watches using adventurers and back this with its Sfr450,000 Awards for Enterprise. Over 30 people are Rolex Laureate for their original and creative schemes.17 Personalities often help positioning. Prestigious brands are often positioned using successful personalities who can add to a product's character. American Express runs ads showing caricatures of famous businesspeople who are also users; Jameson Irish Whiskey uses sportsmen in its positioning; and Hugo Boss identifies successful people as models in its 'Men at Work' campaign.18 Nike started 1900 as the third-place sports shoe after Reebok and Adidas but grew to no. 1 with 32 per cent market share by associating its products with the basketball star Miehael Jordan, Tiger Woods and other famous sports personalities. After losing market leadership to Nike, Reebok aped Nike's position by spending $400 million on sports sponsorship against Nike's $1 billion. It failed. With a market share down to IS per cent in 1998, Reebok backed off sports sponsorship. 'We don't
l-'erccptua! Mapping
Audi ad positions the produce explaining their car's performance and it being of German origin.
want to compete head-on with Nike anymore. They'll do their thing and we'll do ours,' said Reebok's Paul Fireman. 'Getting stars to endorse products has been a priority for the past three years, and hasn't given us much of a payback.' Reebok will concentrate on older consumers, who are less susceptible to fashion and star endorsements. It will back away from Nike's dominant position in basketball and cross training shoes to focus on its traditional strengths in running and walking. 'We're the tortoise, not the hare/ explained Fireman,1' Origin positions product by association with its place of manufacture. Much of Pcrrier's success depended on the sophistication its French origin gave to it. Similarly, Audi's 'Vorsprung durch Technik' positioned its cars as German. Drinks are often positioned using origin. Foster's and Gastlemaine XXXX lagers' positioning uses their Australian heritage, plus masculine humour to reinforce their character. The strategy also works at a local level. Bocldingtons was a local Manchester beer that was not in the United Kingdom's top ten sellers. Then, in 1992 it was relaunched with a campaign using Manchester people and a setting that played upon the creamy froth on the product. Plays on ice cream, face eream, smooth, rich cream helped to make the product the top take-home beer. Other brandy can help position products. Glinique's advertising for its 'skin supplies for men' prominently features a Rolex watch. Where firms have traditioiifilly crafted products, such as Wilkinson's Sword or Holland & Holland shotguns, these lend glamour to more recent products - in these instances, shaving products and men's clothing respectively. After Volkswagen bought the Czech Skoda company, it used the Volkswagen name to transfer some of its strong reputation to Skoda. 'Volkswagen were so impressed, they bought the company' ran one press ad. The responsible ad agency, (U.IK, explains: The Volkswagen connection hit the spot. People immediately latched on to it. It allowed susceptible people [who might be persuaded to buy a Skoda j a route into the brand.' Dealers reported 50 per cent sales increases.2'
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The Ruhr's advertising positions it against the competition at [he heart of Europe.
Competitors provide two positioning alternatives. A product can be positioned directly against a competitor. For example, in ads for their personal computers, Compaq and Tandy have directly compared their products with IBM personal computers. The direct-sell ing computer company dan compares its performance with all other suppliers: '1st in repurchase intention, 1st in repair satisfaction', and so on. In its famous 'We're number two, so we try harder1 campaign, Avis successfully positioned itself against the larger Hertz. A product may also be positioned away from competitors - 7-Up became the no. 3 soft drink when it was positioned as the 'Uncola', the fresh and thirst-quenching alternative to Coke and Pepsi. River Island Expeditions positions its holidays, its adventures for travellers, away from package holidays and the tourists who go on them. It says: 'The traveller is active; he goes strenuously in search of people, of adventure, of experience. The tourist is passive; expects interesting things to happen to him. He goes ' sight -seeing' (Daniel J. Boorstin, 1962). Product class membership is die final means of positioning. For example, Van Den Bergh's I Can't Believe It's Not Butter is clearly positioned against butter, while other yellow fats are promoted as cooking oils. Camay hand soap is positioned with bath oils rather than with soap. Marketers often use a combination of these positioning strategies. Johnson & Johnson's Affinity shampoo is positioned as a hair conditioner for women over 40 (product class and user). And in its Christmas campaigns, Martell cognac and Glenlivet malt whisky both neglect the lucrative 18- to 35-year olds to concentrate on the over-35s (usage situation and user).
Choosing and Implementing a Positioning Strategy
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Guinness' stark advertising emphasises )'c,s unique position in [he marketplace. © Guinness Ltd. All rights reserved
Choosing and Implementing a Positioning Strategy Some firms find it easy to choose their positioning strategy. For example, a firm well known for quality in certain segments will go for this position in a new segment if there are enough buyers seeking quality. In many cases, two or more firms will go after the same position: for instance, Rritish Airways and Lufthansa in the European business market. Then, each will have to find other ways to set itself apart, such as Lufthansa's promise of reliability and wider scats, and BA's spacious cabins and executive lounges. Each firm must differentiate its offer by building a unique bundle of competitive advantages that appeal to a substantial group within the segment. Having identified a set of possible competitive advantages upon which to build a position, the next stages are to select the right competitive advantages and effectively communicate the chosen position to the market (see Marketing Highlight 10.3).
Selecting the Right Competitive Advantages Suppose a company is fortunate enough to have several potential competitive advantages. It must now choose the ones upon which it will build its positioning strategy. It must decide how many differences to promote and which ones.
t How Many Differences to Promote? Many marketers t h i n k that companies should aggressively promote only one benefit to the target market. Ad man Rosser Reeves, for example, said a company
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Battling for Position in the Fast Lane
Marketing Highlight 10,3
In the late 1980s, Europe dominated the world luxury car market. Germany reigned with Mercedes, BMW and Audi followed by Sweden's Saab and Volvo. Rover's re-entry into the crowded luxury car market contained a clue to the future. Realizing that it did not have the scale to design and buiid a range of cars by itself, Rover made a deal with Honda. For Rover it was to be the 800, a replacement for its SD1; for Honda, the Legend. Both firms intended to sell them in the North American market. Rover got there first in 1986. The car was good value and fitted well with the United Kingdom's reputation for traditional luxury products. The Rover 800 sold in the United States as the Stirling, with no Rover badge, to avoid association with the SDI's unsuccessful career in the United States. Although voted International Car of the Year when it was launched in 1977, the SD1 had quickly acquired a reputation for poor quality and unreliability. In 1987 initial sales of the Stirling were good, reaching 14,000. Then, by 1988, they had dropped to less than 9,000. Again unreliability killed Rover in the United States market. Quality problems plagued the Stirling, it was not ready for any market, let alone the American market. Honda's aims for the Legend were higher than Rover's. The Honda Aeeord was already America's top-selling car. It had an excetlent reputation for economy, reliability and comfort, and was no. 1 in the US compact car market. Honda, however, had its sights on the US luxury market dominated by the Europeans. The market was growing fast, and margins were high. To attack the luxury end Honda had to straddle the US car market. The Accord was smaller and less expensive than regular American cars. In contrast, the European luxury cars now targeted were exclusive and priced above regular cars. Honda realized that to succeed it had to position the Accord and Legend differently, and that is what it did. The Legend was already bigger and more expensive than the Accord, but that was not enough. Honda decided
not to extend the Honda brand mime, but to launch the Legend as an Acura, a new luxury brand. It also established a new Acura distribution chain and set up a special hot-line service for Aeura suppliers and users. However, unlike Mercedes and BMW, Honda intended to sell its ears fully equipped to luxury standards cruise control, air conditioning, the iot. With the cars being made in Japan, it would have taken too long to have them 'made to measure' and shipped. Honda had decided to take on Europe's leading car manufacturers in the world's largest car market - and with a new product, in a segment ir did not know, using a new brand name and new dealerships, and pricing higher than it had ever done before. Honda's declared aim was to give the discerning Acura driver 'total customer satisfaction'. Honda's Legend did much better than Hover's Stirling in the United States market. In its first year 70,770 Acuras were sold, 80 per cent more than Mercedes, which had been the class leader up to that point. The Acura also had one of the best reliability records in the United Stares market and one of the highest residual values. However, Acura supremacy in the United States did not last long: Toyota soon followed with its luxury Lexus range. America's economic recession and their loss of market share to the Japanese hit European luxury ear makers. Some responded with violent repositioning to help attract new customers. Mercedes tried to adjust its staid, reliable, quality reputation and so address customers' views that T can't afford one at the moment' and 'I'm not old enough yet'. One Mercedes ad asked: 'Has our reputation for the highest quality also given us a reputation for the highest price?' and then explained how inexpensive it was. Mercedes wanted to be sporty too. One ad headlined 'What do 27 of the 34 Grand Prix drivers drive on their day off?' Mercedes' concern about perceived expense continues. It advertises its S-class using quotes from Autocar & Motor, which says it is the best car in the world: 'Sit in an S-class, regardless
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of engine size, and you know you've arrived.' Hut the ad continues: 'A genuine bargain': as What Car? so neatly puts it.' The ad's headlines bet rayMercedes' positioning dilemma: L lt wouldn't be the best car in the world if nobody could afford it.' Volvo is also repositioning its products. In 1990 its position was clear when it ran an ad with five pictures of toddlers with the headline: 'Are they as safe around town as they are around the house?' It goes on: 'If you'd like your children to be as safe as houses on the road ..'. Shortly after, Volvo's TV ads were showing a horse galloping through a dark wood. The ear had become so exciting to drive that it was almost alive - a position close to BMW's 'The Ultimate Driving Machine'. Saab's repositioning is no less dramatic. In the late 1980s Saab's Carlsson series ads had the car juxtaposed with the Saab Viggen jut fighters: 'For Saab Viggen, getting behind the controls is proof of incredible mental and physical stamina, years of intensive training and an ally or two at the Royal Swedish Air Force.' Their strapline was 'Saab: The Aircraft Manufacturer'. The aggressive masculinity of the product and the strapline have now gone. The Saab is a thoughtfully designed car. Designers appear in the ads and one of them is a woman, 'Aim Nilsson, chief interior designer of the Saab 900'. The 1990 European launch positioned Lexus as one of the great marques. Names like RollsRoyce, Mercedes, BMW and Jaguar littered the copy. They ignored Japanese oars such as the
Acura Legend and Nissan Infiniti. The car impressed the press, so later ads incorporated their favourable comments: 'Imagine a big saloon that is faster than a BMW 735i, quieter than a Jaguar Sovereign and as meticulously engineered as a Mercedes. The Lexus LS400 is all of these and more.' The launches of other Japanese models have used positioning strategies similar to that used by Toyota for Lexus. Nissan's new coupe used a quotation from Autocar & Motor as a headline: 'Brilliant new 200SX, Ferrari iooks, Porsche pace'. Underneath the Nissan logo they also promote: 'Nissan UK Ltd, Worthing, Sussex'. Mazda's MX- 5 Miata is also in the mood of more exotic antiques and must have Rover sobbing. It was designed in the United Kingdom, hut when it was being road tested in California, the drivers were plagued by people demanding to know where they could get one. The ear's launch used 1960s imagery and profuse references to Austin Healey, MG and Triumph. Like Nissan's nostalgia cars, the MX- 5 is a 'back to basics' car whose performance is not outstanding but, as Wliat Car? says, it has 'Sixties looks with Nineties fun and finesses . . . Over to you MG'.
should develop a unique selling proposition (I'SP) for each brand and stick to it. Each brand should pick an attribute and tout itself as 'no. 1' on that attribute. Buyers tend to remember 'no. 1' better, especially in an overcommunicated society. Thus Crest toothpaste consistently promotes its anti-cavity protection, and Mercedes promotes its great automotive engineering. What are some of the !no. 1' positions to promote? The most significant ones are 'best quality', 'best service', 'lowest price', 'best value' and 'most advanced technology'. A company that hammers away at one of these positions and consistently achieves it will probably bceonie best known and remembered for it. The difficulty of keeping functional superiority has made firms focus on having a unique emotional selling proposition (ESP) instead of a USP. The product may be similar to competitors', but it has unique associations for consumers. Leading names like Rolls-Royce, Ferrari and Rolex have done this, Other cars outperform Ferrari on the road and track, but 'the red car with the
unique selling proposition (L'SP) The unique product benefit that a firm aggressively promotes in a consistent manner to its target market. The benefit usually reflects functional superiority: best quality, best services, lowest price, most advanced technology.
458 • Chapter 10 Positioning I Can'[ Believe ft's Not Butter uses dual positioning: it is 'light' but it tastes [ike 'butter'.
emotional selling proposition (ESP) A non-functional attribute that has unique associations for consumers.
imdeipositioni ng A positioning error referring to failure to position a company, its product or brand. overpositioning A positioning error referring to too narrow a picture of the company, its product or a brand being communicated to target customers.
prancing horse' is the world's no. 1 sports car. Many Formula One racing drivers still dream of racing a Ferrari, even when the team is not winning. Other marketers think that companies should position themselves on more than one differentiating factor. This may be necessary if two or more firms arc claiming to be best on the same attribute. S tee lease, an office furniture systems company, differentiates itself from competitors on two benefits: best on-time delivery and best installation support. Volvo positions its automobiles as 'safest' and 'most durable'. Fortunately, these two benefits are compatible - a very safe car would also be very durable. Today, in a time when the mass market is fragmenting into many small segments, companies are trying to broaden their positioning strategies to appeal to more segments. For example, Beecham promotes its Aquafresh toothpaste as offering three benefits: 'anti-cavity protection', 'better breath' and 'whiter teeth'. Clearly, many people want all three benefits, and the challenge is to convince them that the brand delivers all three, Bcecham's solution was to create toothpaste that squeezed out of the tube in three colours, thus visually confirming the three benefits. In doing this, Beeeham attracted three segments instead of one. However, as companies increase the number of claims for their brands, they risk disbelief and a loss of clear positioning. Usually, a company needs to avoid three serious positioning errors. The first is underpo si tinning - that is, failing to position the company at all. Some companies discover that buyers have only a vague idea of the brand, or that they do not really know anything special about it. This has occurred with dark spirits - whisky and brandy - where young drinkers have drifted away from them. United Distillers and Hiram Walker aim to reverse this trend with their Bells and Teacher's brands by targeting 25- to 35-year-old men. There is much focus on extending the use of both brands as a mixer. This is an anathema to many whisky drinkers, but United Distillers has successfully promoted it as a mixer in both Spain and Greece.21 The second positioning error is overpositinning - that is, giving buyers too narrow a picture of the company.
Choosing and Implementing a Positioning Strategy
When Positions Collide
Marketing
& succession of pop musicians. Often their positioning is by behaviour. It is hard to imagine that part of the appeal of the classic 1960s rock bands The Who and the Rolling Stones was their noisy music as well as their wrecking of their instruments and hotel rooms. Even the Beatles were 'mop heads' until the Stones out-alienated them. They followed in the tradition set by such objectionable creatures as Elvis Presley and Cliff Richard. Each generation discovers alienation positions, although few went so far as punk bands such as the Sex Pistols. Sometimes the excitement, youth and energy makes these outsiders attractive to people trying to position themselves. In the 'swinging sixties', the then British prime minister, Harold Wilson, held parties at 10 Downing Street where he could be photographed alongside pop person all ties. Probably the saddest case of this pop positioning was Richard Nixon being photographed with Elvis as part of an anti-drugs campaign. Pop positioning was too good a trick for Britain's new Labour to miss. Soon after gaining power, Tony Blair was photographed with Oasis's Noel Gallagher at a 10 Downing Street pop party. It became one pop position too far at the 1998 Brit music industry awards. While the music industry was helping pop position new Labour, anarchist pop group Chmnbawamba exploited alienation positioning by pouring a bucket of water over John Prescott, deputy prime minister. It is dangerous when positions collide.
Highlight 10.4
Some positions, just like some .segments, do not mix. In an attempt to understand classical concert goers, London's South Bank Centre commissioned CRAM International to analyze its audience. The resulting segments include classical purists, mainstream stalwarts, new modernists and good time noi'ices. The problem for the South Bank Centre is that the segments don't only differ in their musical tastes, but they also dislike each other. Marketers can sometimes use this alienation profitably. When the marketers of 'ever so nice' Smarties children's confectionery recognized that growing 'pest power' meant that they had to attract children rather than parents, they did it with a vengeance. Not only did Smarties TV advertising become exeiting for children, but the company also tapped into playground cults. The first was 'cool dood' sunglasses, then came the 'gruesome greenies' pouch and the 'zapper', a pocketsized machine that made noises guaranteed to annoy parents and teachers. Ironically, from the same stable comes the Milky Bar Kid - a squeaky clean nice boy dressed in white whom many parents love bxit who is far from appealing to streetwise kids. The Milky Bar Kid works because it is aimed at parents who buy white chocolate Milky Bar products for their very young children. Sometimes trying to appeal directly to the tastes of children can backfire. Healthy children's cereal Weetabix had to withdraw a campaign showing its cereal bars dressed as skin-heads who came too close to looking like football hooligans. Lego faced a similar backlash when it promoted its educational toys using an unsavoury Lego character driving a Lego car recklessly. Some parents thought it looked too mueh like joy riding. This alienation positioning has been used by
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Thus a consumer might think that the Steuben glass company makes only fine art glass costing gl ,000 and up, when it also makes affordable fine glass starting at around 850. Finally, companies must avoid confused positioning - that is, leaving buyers with a confused image of Che company. For example. Burger King has struggled
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confused positioning A positioning error thai leaves consumers with a confused image of tlie company, its product or a brand. implausible positioning; Making claims that stretch the perception of the buyers too far to be believed.
without success for years to establish a profitable and consistent position. Since 1986, it has undertaken five separate advertising campaigns, with themes ranging from 'Herb the nerd doesn't eat here' and 'This is a Burger King town', to 'The right food for the right times' and 'Sometimes you've got to break the rules'. This barrage of positioning statements has left consumers confused and Burger King with poor sales and profits.22 Implausible positioning occurs when the positioning strategy stretches the perception of the buyers too far, Toyota recognized this when it created the Lexus brand rather than try to stretch its highly respected name into the luxury car market. With the help of Volkswagen. Skoda is very successful in eastern Europe, but it will be many years before many people will accept the product as an alternative to an Audi or Ford. Some market positions, while attracting one group of customers, can alienate others and so backfire, as Marketing Highlight 10.4 tells.
• Which Differences to Promote? Not all brand differences are meaningful or worthwhile. Not every difference makes a good differentiator. Each difference has the potential to create company costs as well as customer benefits. Therefore, the company must carefully select the ways in which it will distinguish itself from competitors. A difference is worth establishing insofar as it satisfies the following criteria: • •
Important. The difference delivers a highly valued benefit to target buyers. Distinctive. Competitors do not offer the difference, or the company can offer it in a more distinctive way.
• • •
Superior. The difference is superior to other ways that customers might obtain the same benefit. Communicable. The difference is communicable and visible to buyers. Pre-emptive. Competitors cannot easily copy the difference.
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Affordable. Buyers can afford to pay for the difference. Profitable. The company can introduce the difference profitably.
Many companies have introduced differentiations that failed one or more of these tests. The Westin Stamford hotel in Singapore advertises that it is the world's tallest hotel, a distinction that is not important to many tourists - the fact scared many. AT & T's original picturevision phones failed, partly because the public did not think that seeing the other person was worth the phone's high cost, Philips Laservision failed too. Although the laser disks gave excellent picture quality, there were few disks available and the machines could not record. These drawbacks meant that consumers saw Laservision as offering no advantage over videotape machines. Some competitive advantages are too slight, too costly to develop, or too inconsistent with the company's profile. Suppose that a company is designing its positioning strategy and has narrowed its list of possible competitive advantages to four. The company needs a framework for selecting the one advantage thai makes the most sense to develop. Table 10.2 shows a systematic way of evaluating several potential competitive advantages and choosing the right one. In the table, the company compares its standing on four attributes - technology, cost, quality and service - to the standing of its chief competitor. Let's assume that both companies stand at 8 on technology ('1 = low score, 10 = high score), which means that they both have good technology. The company ques-
Choosing and Implementing a Positioning Strategy • 461
Table 10.2
Finding competitive advantage
COMPANY 'COMPETITOR IMPORTANCE APFORDABILITY COMPETITOR'S COMPETITIVE STANDING ^STANDING OF IMPROVING ANI> SPEED ABILITY TO IMPROVE RECOMMENDED ADVANTAGE (1-10) (1-10) STANDING (H-M-L) (TI-M-L) STANDING (II-M-L) ACTION Technology Cost Quality Service
8 6 8 4
s 8 6 3
L H L H
L M L H
M
M H L
tions whether it can gain much by improving its technology further, especially given the high cost of new technology. The competitor has a better standing on cost (8 instead of 6), and this can hurt the company it' the market gets more price sensitive. The company offers higher quality than its competitor (8 instead of 6). Finally, both companies offer below-average service (4 and 3). At first glance, it appears that the company should go after cost or service to improve its market appeal over the competitor. However, it must consider other factors. First, how important are improvements in each of these attributes to the target customers? The fourth column shows that both cost and service improvements would be highly important to customers. Next, can the company afford to make the improvements? If so, how fast can it complete them? The fifth column shows that the company could improve service quickly and affordably. But if the firm decided to do this, would the competitor be able to improve its service also? The sixth column shows that the competitor's ability to improve service is low, perhaps because the competitor does not believe in service or has limited funds. The final column then shows the appropriate actions to take on each attribute. It makes the most sense for the company to invest in improving its service. Service is important to customers; the company can afford to improve its service arid can do it fast, and the competitor will probably not be able to catch up.
Communicating and Delivering the Chosen Position Once it has chosen a position, the company must take strong steps to deliver and communicate the desired position to target consumers. All the company's marketing-mix efforts must support the positioning strategy. Positioning the company calls for concrete action - it is not just talk. If the company decides to build a position on better quality and service, it must first deliver that position. Designing the marketing mix - product, price, place and promotion - involves working out the tactical details of the positioning strategy. Thus a firm that seizes upon a 'high-quality position' knows that it must produce high-quality products, charge a high price, distribute through high-quality dealers and advertise in highquality media. It must hire and train more service people, find retailers that have a good reputation for service, and develop sales and advertising messages that broadcast its superior service. This is the only way to build a consistent and believable high-quality, high-service position.
Hold Watch Watch invest
462 • Chapter 10 Positioning Calvin Klein Cosmetics has noticed a shift in the fragrance market. Shiseido launched a classic fragrance by Jean-Paul Gaultier, en/ant terrible of French fashion, that broke industry rules with its punky advertising and packaging - a bottle in the shape of a woman's torso encased in an aluminium can. L'Oreal responded with Eden, a new Caeharel fragrance for ecologically concerned consumers. Calvin Klein's response is cK one, a 'shared fragrance for young consumers who, he believes, are ready to buy a scent created for both sexes'. The designer's other fragrances, Obsession, Eternity and Escape, are for women only. The positioning of cK one is radical and covers the whole marketing mix. The range will include youth-oriented products, such as massage oil. The bottles and display material are by Fabien Baron, designer of advertising campaigns for other Calvin Klein products as well as Valentino, Burberry's and Giorgio Armani. He also collaborated with Madonna in the production of her Sea! book. He says Calvin's response to the bottle was 'Boom! Yeah! Right on.' It is a frosted glass flask with aluminium top and recycled paper packaging. The rest of the marketing mis that backs cK one is radical positioning. Prices are low - about 70 per cent of Obsession's - and it will sell in novel distribution outlets, notably Tower Records. To ensure that the multimillion dollar launch is a success, Calvin Klein's corporation will send 12,000 gorgeous members of both sexes to stores to splash It on shoppers.-3 Companies often find it easier to come up with a good positioning strategy than to implement it. Establishing a position or changing one usually takes a long time. In contrast, positions that have taken years to build can quickly disappear. Once a company has built the desired position, it must take care to maintain the position through consistent performance and communication. It must closely monitor and adapt the position over time to match changes in consumer needs and competitors' strategies. This is how world leading brands Coca-Cola, Nescafe, Snickers, BMW, Rolex, Estee Lander, Johnnie Walker and Chanel have remained pre-eminent for so long. The company should avoid abrupt changes that might confuse consumers. Coca-Cola forgot this when it introduced its disastrous new Coke, Marlboro's price cuts made the brand fall from being the most highly valued brand to out of the top ten, and Unilever's hasty introduction of the Pcrsil/Omo Power benefited Procter & Gamble. Violent changes rarely succeed - a product's position should evolve as it adapts to the changing market environment.
Summary The core strategy of a company shows how it will address the markets it has targeted. By differentiation it develops the strengths of the company, so that they meet the target markets' needs; then, by market positioning, it manages the way consumers view the company and its products. Differentiation helps a firm compete profitably. It gives it a competitive advantage. If a firm does not differentiate, it will be like 'all the rest' and be forced to compete on price. Differentiation is harder in some industries than others, but it is rare that a creative marketer cannot differentiate a market in some way. There are four main ways to differentiate: product differentiation, service differentiation, personnel differentiation and image differentiation. The ease of following new technological innovations means that the product is becoming an increasingly difficult way to differentiate. Now service and image are the main
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Applying the Concepts
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ways people distinguish between products. As systems and methods become more common, personnel differentiation becomes more important. The firm is its people and they arc usually what the customer is most sensitive to. A firm's functional strengths give it its competitive advantage. Market positioning is about managing customers' view of the company and its products. It is about perception. Perceptual maps are a way of revealing how customers see markets. They show which products customers see as alike and those that are not. They ean also show segments and the dimensions that customers use to split up the market. There are several positioning strategies for shifting and holding customers' perceptions. Positioning works by associating products with product attributes or other stimuli. Successful firms usually maintain a clear differential advantage and do not make violent changes to their market positions.
Key Terms Competitive advantage 434 Confused positioning 459 Core strategy 434 Emotional selling proposition (KSP) 457 Fragmented industry 435
Implausible positioning 460 Overpositioning 4.S& Perceptual maps 446 Product position 443 Specialised industry 435
Stalemate industry 435 Underpositionlng 458 Unique selling proposition (US?) 457 Volume industry 435
Discussing the Issues In marketing products and services, 'being different is good', so the pros say. Why should firms differentiate their product or service offerings? What are the specific ways in which a producer of goods or services differentiates its offer from those of competitors? Discuss, using specific examples.
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2. What roles do product attributes and perceptions of attributes play in positioning a product? Can an attribute held by several competing brands be us>ed in a successful positioning strategy?
Think of well-known beer or lager brands. How well are these positioned in relation to one another? Do manufacturers clarify or confuse the positioning themes? Are the differences they promote meaningful or worthwhile?
5.
Perceptual mapping is a valuable aid to product positioning. What are its benefits and 'limitations?
f Marketing Management, S, 4 (1992). pp. 351-64. 10. See George Stalk, Philip Evans and Laurence E. Bhulman, 'Competing capabilities: the new rules of corporate strategy', Harvard Business Bewiew (March-April 1992), pp. 57-69; lienson P. Shapiro, V. Kasturi lian£an and John J. SvJOkla, 'Staple yourself to an order', Harvard Business Review (July-August 1992), pp. 113-22. 11. For more discussion, see Frederick E. Webster, Jr, The changing role of marketing in the corporation', Journal of Marketing (October 1992), pp. 1-17. 12. Simon Ilolberton, 'In pursuit of repeat business'. Financial Times (31 May 1991), p. 14; Adrian Payne and Fran Pennie, 'Relationship marketing: key issues for the utilities sector1, Journal of Marketing Management, 13, 5 (1997), pp. 46577. 13. Redriek F. Reiclield and W. Earl Sasscr, Jr, 'Zero defections: quality comes to service', Harvard Business Review (September-October 1990), pp. 301-7. 14. Leonard L Uerry and A. Parasuraman, Marketing Services: Competing through quality (New York: Free Press, 1991), pp. 136-42. IS Aimee L. Stern, 'Courting consumer loyalty with the feelgood bond', Nifis York Times (17 January 1993), p. F10. 16. James II. Donnelly. Jr, Leonard L. Berry and Thomas W Thompson, Marketing Financial Services: A strategic vision (Homewood, 1L: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1985), p. 113.
498 • Chapter 11 Building Customer Relationships-. Customer Satisfaction, Quality, Value and Service 17. 18. 19.
20. 21.
Richard Lapper, 'J.P. Morgan offers free use of its toolbox', Financial Times (11 October 1994), p. 27. Thomas E. Caruso, 'Kotler: future marketers will focus on customer data base to compote globally', Marketing News (8 June 1992), p. 21. On when and how to use relationship marketing, see Barbara Bund Jackson, Winning and Keefring Industrial Customers: The dynamics of customer relationships (Lexington. MA: Heath, 1985); James C. Anderson and James A. Nanis, 'Value-based segmentation, targeting and relationshipbuilding in business markets', ISBM Report No. 12, Institute for the Study of Business Markets, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA (1989); Lawrence A. Crosby. Kenneth R. Evans and Deborah Cowles, 'Relationship quality and services selling- an interpersonal influence perspective', Journal of Marketing (My 1990), pp. 68-81; Barry J. Farber and Joyce Wyooff, 'Relationships: six steps to sueeess', Sales and Marketing Management (April 1992), pp. 50-8. Michael J. Lamiing and Lynn W. Phillips, 'Strategy shifts up a gear',Marketing (October 1991), p. 9. 'Business and Community Annual Report (1997)', financial Timus (4 December 1997), p. 5.
22. Specifically, Bob Luehs, 'Quality as a strategic weapon: measuring relative quality, value, and market differentiation', European Business journal, 2, 4 (1990), pp. .14-47; and generally Robert D. Huzzell and Bradley T. Gale, The 1'IMS I'li-rmiples: Linking strategy to performance (New York: Free Press, 1987), eh. 6. 23. 'Quality: the US drives to catch up', /Justness Week (November 1982). pp. 66-80: 68. For a recent assessment of progress, see 'Quality programs show shoddy results'. Wall Street Journal (14 May 1992), p. Bl. 24. See 'The gurus of quality; American companies are heading the quality gospel preached by Deming. Juran, Crosby, and Taguehi', Traffic Management (July 1990), pp. 35-9. 25. J. Daniel Beckham, 'Expect the unexpected in health care marketing future', The Academy Bulletin (July 1992), p. 3 26. Kenneth Kivenku, Quality Control far Management (Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice Hall, 1984); see also Kate Bertrand, 'Marketing discovers what 'quality' really means', Business Marketing (April 1987), pp. 58-72.
Case 11 Fcinschmecker Sauce: Pricey 'n' Spicy Verena M. Priemer* UNCLE BEN'S RICE is THE market leader in the Austrian market for part boiled riec. According to a survey, 75 per cent of the Austrian households knew the brand, a figure that increased to 95 per cent for the aided recall. Seventy-eight per eent of all households had used the brand at least once, 36 per cent bought it most of the time, and 50 per cent of them claimed that Uncle Ben's was their preferred brand. Consumers saw Uncle Ben's Rice as having superior quality and taste, and being easy to prepare, modern, wholesome and nutritious. It was seen as a relatively expensive brand, but consumers thought the brand's outstanding quality made it worth the high price. Uncle Ben's many brand strengths made its owner, Master Foods Austria (MFA), think it was the ideal vehicle for brand extension. However, care was needed. The brand extension had to meet the high quality of L'ncle Ben's Rice to avoid damaging the reputation of the mother brand. MFA's first task was to find out from customers the kinds of product that would sell with Uncle Ben's Rice. A survey of consumers' associations was carried out regarding Uncle Ben's, which revealed some potential product fields (see Exhibit 11.1). The general trend towards international eating encouraged MFA to extend Uncle Ren's umbrella to ready-to-serve sauces ' University of Vienna, Austria.
Case 11: Fcinschmecker Sauce with exotic tastes. Both Uncle Ben's rice and sauee would be fast and easy to cook, and so could he used together. To enhance its image of' high quality and naturalness, the product would contain whole pieces of vegetables. MFA produced Uncle Ben's sauces in 350 g glass jars rather than in the usual can. Users needed to add about 200 g of their own meat to the sauee to make a meal. The chosen name, Uncle Ben's Feinschmeckcr (gourmet) Sauce, focused on the quality and refinement of the product.
EXHIBIT 11.1 POTENTIAL PRODUCT FIELDS FOR AN EXPANSION OP THE UNCLE BEN'S BRAND ASSOCIATIONS WITH UNCLE BEN'S
POTENTIAL PRODUCT KIELDS
Rice - different kinds of rice
—»
Rice - cereals, flour, grain Garnishing American Helpful, prepared Quality, cooking
—* —> —» —» -»
rice plus sauce, rice plus vegetables, rice meals, rice pudding wholesome nutrition different garnishes, noodles fast food, prepared food ready-to-serve meals, mixed spices ready-to-serve meals, frozen food
The 350 g jars fitted the needs of two-person households, which were the main target market. These would be typically women between the ages of 20 and 40 years who were interested in food and variety. Being well educated, the target segment would be open-minded towards new and foreign ideas. The target group also had the necessary high income to match the pricey sauce. A selling price of nearly Sch30 was needed to cover high production costs and import duties. Feinschmeeker Sauces had varieties to suit the tastes of different market segments. For example, adults, who wanted exotic and spicy dishes, were expected to buy flavours such as 'Karibiseh', while children would prefer the mild 'Chinesisch', a taste that they already know from restaurant food. The latter variety was viewed as a 'gateway sauce' for consumers who are unused to more exotic dishes. Concept tests showed that people were attracted to the more exotic sauces: 55 per eent of the informants said that they were interested in 'Karibiseh', 45 per cent in 'Mexikanisch', 45 per eent in 'Indisch', but only 5 per cent in 'Italienisch'. The range of Feinschmeeker Sauces would satisfy a variety of consumers' needs, thus increasing the buying frequency. The main reasons for purchasing Uncle Ben's Sauces would be quality, comfort, confidence in the product and the attraction of a foreign flavour that would be hard to find elsewhere. Meals would be easy to prepare with the sauces, so that even non-expert cooks could produce exotic food at home. The sauces also gave people the chance to try foreign meals without buying numerous unfamiliar ingredients. Some opposition was expected from some consumers to using the sauees. Certain people disapproved of ready-to-eat meals or disliked exotic flavours, for instance, while the high price would deter others. The danger of spoiling the meat when adding the sauce would be seen by some as a further obstacle. In September 1992 MFA launched six varieties of Uncle Ben's Feinschmeeker Sauce in Austria and two more varieties were later added (see Exhibit 11.2), Uncle Ben's sauces were launched in other European countries too, but because of the divergent tastes across Europe, the varieties, recipes and brand name varied from country to country. The
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500 • Chapter 11 Building Customer Relationships: Customer Satisfaction, Quality, Value and Service advertising concentrated on creating awareness and interest, a task simplified by the strength of Uncle Ben's brand reputation. It emphasized the link between Uncle Ben's Fcinschmeeker Sauce and Uncle Ben's Rice, and aimed to transfer the quality image from the rice to the sauce, while at the same time strengthening Uncle Ben's position in the saturated rice market. Pointof-sales promotions gave consumers a chance to try the product.
EXHIBIT SAUCE
11.2 VARIETIES OF UNCLE BEN'S FEINSCHMECKER
VARIANT NAME Chinesisch sufi-sauer Provenzalisch mit feinen Krautern Indisch Curry Karibiseh exotisch fruchtig Mexikanisch Chili Neapolitanisch raffiniert gewiirzt Chinesisch Szeclnian Stroganoff
TRANSLATION Chinese sweet and sour Provencal with fine herbs Indian curry Caribbean exotic fruity Mexican chilli Neapolitan sophisticated seasoned Chinese Szeehuan Stroganoff
SOURCES: Thanks co Dr Ingrkl Kauper-Petschnlhar of Master Poods Austria Grabl I and research by the Institut I'iir Motivforsohung. A+U GaJlup-Institut, and Tulubus, INTEGRAL.
The launch of Uncle Ben's Feinsehmecker Sauce was successful. By November 1993, 6 per cent of Austrian households had bought the product once and 7 per cent had bought it more often. The repurchase rate by the GfK panel of households after the first six months of 1993 was 32 per cent. Of the varieties, 8 per cent of purchasers had tried 'Mexikaniseh Chili', 7 per cent 'Chinesisch siifi-saucr', 5 per cent 'Indisuh Curry'. 3 per cent 'Neapolitanisch raffiniert gewiirzt', 2 per cent 'Provenzalisch mit feinen Krautern', and 1 percent 'Karibiseh exotisch fnichtig'. Purchase frequencies of Uncle Ben's Feinschmecker Sauce varied from group to group. Younger women (up to 34 years old) had bought Feinschmecker Sauce disproportionately often: a survey showed that their share of purchase (33 per cent) was higher than the sample average (20 per cent). Thirty per cent of the buyers came from the highest social class, although they accounted for only ] 4 per cent of the sample. The survey also showed variations in the products consumed. Households with children bought mainly 'Neapolitanisch raffiniert gewiirzt' (50 per eent), but seldom the spicy variety 'Mexikanisch Chili' (16 per cent). Higher-Income consumers bought spicy 'Karibiseh exotisch fruchtig' more often than the more familiar 'Chinesisch siift-sauer' (19 percent). The popularity of the sauces contrasted sharply with what the concept test had suggested. The mild 'Chinesisch siiiA-sauer' was the most popular variety (40 per cent of purchases), 'Mexikanisch Chili' and 'Provenzalisch mit feinen Krautern' each had only 10 per cent of purchases, while 'Karibiseh' - the most popular flavour during the concept tests - was the least popular of the range! Consumer research showed that people mainly bought Feinschmecker Sauce in order to prepare meals quickly and easily, particularly when coming home late in the evening or when short of time. In contrast to readyto-serve meals, consumers still added their own seasoning to create a meal to their liking - they wanted to remove the trouble of preparing a meal, but still wanted the dish served to be essentially their own. Although pre-
Cast; 11: Feinschmecher Sauce
prepared, Feinschmecker Sauce appeared wholesome, so consumers had no qualms about enjoying it. The sauce was convenient to transport and store, and was also easy to open and reclosc for later use. Uncle Ben's Feinschinecker Sauce gained the same reputation for high quality, security and modernity as Uncle Ben's Rice. Consumers prepared the sauces in various ways: with or without meat, and with rice or noodles. They perceived the product as special and quite different from other dried and frozen sauces.
QUESTIONS 1. What internal or external stimuli may start the buyer decision process for Uncle Ben's Feinschmeeker Sauce? 2. Compare the buyer decision process of an initial purchase and a repeat purchase. What is the type of buying decision behaviour in each case and how does the brand name Uncle Ben's influence the decision? 3. What explains the big difference between the concept test results and eventual buyer behaviour? Does the difference in the results matter? 4. Several stores sell the product below the price of Sch30. Why should they do that and could it harm Uncle Ben's reputation? 5. How can MFA influence the level of customer satisfaction achieved and how does MFA's targeting help achieve customer satisfaction? 6. Does this brand extension endanger the standing of Uncle Ben's Rice?
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Creating Competitive Advantages CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the importance of developing competitive marketing strategies that position the company against competitors and give it the strongest possible competitive advantage. Identify the steps that companies go through in analyzing competitors.
Discuss the competitive strategies that market leaders use to expand the market and to protect and expand their market shares. Describe the strategies that market challengers and followers use to increase their market shares and profits. Discuss how market nichers find and develop profitable corners of the market.
Preview Case Federal Express: Losing a Packet in Europe FEDERAL EXPRESS (FEDEX), PIONEER OF the express-delivery industry as we now know it, has pulled out of the European market with a red face and an even redder balance sheet. Left to fight for Europe's express package deliveries market are Brussels-based DHL, Australian TNT and new US entrant, UPS (United Parcel Service). Founded in 1973, EedEx got off to a slow start - educating the American public about the value of overnight delivery took time. However, building
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504 • Chapter 12 Creatittg Competitive Advantages doggedly on the advertising promise, 'When it absolutely, positively has to be there on time', FedEx went on to become one of the fastest start-ups in American history. Central to its success was the company's innovative and now much-copied 'hub-and-spoke' distribution system. This capital-intensive system had vans picking up parcels and delivering them to local airports. That night FedEx's aircraft then Hew to the national hub for sorting on to a same-night flight out to their destination and final delivery by van, By the early 1990s the US express-delivery market was for 3 million packages shipped daily, generating more than $20 million in annual revenues. Despite strong challenges from a glut of imitators in the United States, FedEx remains the undisputed market leader. It has 45 per cent US market share, comfortably ahead of the main challengers UPS at 25 per cent, Airborne at 14 per cent and the US Postal Service at about 8 per cent. FedEx did not succeed by being the lowest-priced express-delivery service. Even in the face of cut-throat pricing by competitors, the company has been careful not to let cost cutting undermine its main source of competitive advantage - superior quality. FedEx has traditionally differentiated itself not by luring customers with low prices, but by giving them unbeatable reliability and service. Over the years, it has sunk money and effort into improving service quality. In 1987, it established a formal Quality Improvement Process, which set simple yet lofty quality goals: 100 per cent on-time deliveries, 100 per cent accurate information on every shipment to every location in the world, and 100 per cent customer satisfaction. At Federal Express, quality goes beyond slogans. It developed a Service Quality Index (SOJ - pronounced 'sky'), made up of 12 things that it knows disappoint customers — how many packages were delivered on the wrong day, how many were late, how many were damaged, how many billing corrections the company had to make, and other such mistakes. It computes the SQJ daily and takes it very seriously. 'Quality action teams' study SQJ results, looking for trouble spots and ways to eliminate them. Even management bonuses are keyed to achieving SQI goals. Bach year, the company invests more than $200 on each of its 86,000 employees for quality initiatives, FedEx believes that top-flight quality is well worth the heavy investment, even if it results in higher prices. In an industry where late delivery can spell disaster, even a 98 per cent success rate isn't good enough. Most customers will gladly pay a little more for the added peace of mind that comes with superior service and unwavering reliability. In the early 1980s, flush with domestic success, FedEx decided that the time had come to go global. It began to buy into Europe through a series of small acquisitions, including Lex Wilkinson and Littlewoods' Home Delivery Service, It invested heavily to set up a European hub-and-spoke system, and prepared to launch a full frontal assault on Europe. In 1989, to cap its global network it bought the legendary Flying Tigers, the world's largest carrier of heavyweight cargo. With this acquisition, it could move freight of any size. By the early 1990s FedEx had poured $2.5 billion into international expansion to become the world's largest express transportation company, with 441 aircraft and 30,000 pick-up and delivery vans serving 173 countries. Its new global goal: to be able to deliver freight anywhere in a global network within just two days. Despite its high hopes and heavy investment, however, the global effort turned out to be-' a disaster. Whereas FedEx is the clear market leader in the United States, in Europe it was a challenger. To win in Europe, it had to takeon a well-en trenched competitor, DHL, the world leader in international express delivery. FedEx's aggressive attack on international markets
Preview Case: Federal Ex?iress
provoked an equally aggressive defence, not just from DHL, but also from UPS, TNT and other large international rivals. For example, DHL strengthened its international hase by forging new relationships with Lufthansa and Japan Airlines, TNT had a joint venture with GD Net, an express delivery network set up by the post offices of Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden. UPS invested heavily to strengthen its global delivery network, expanding coverage to 175 countries. Once all these competitors had set up their expensive networks with high fixed costs, the marketing departments had to compete intensively to get business. The basis of the courier business is people's willingness to pay more for a fast and reliable service, a basic quality the European competitors found hard to achieve. The business journal Management Today experimented by sending its magazines by five carriers (DHL, FedEx, Securieor, TNT and UPS) from. London to Dusseldorf, Paris and Milan. The times ranged from 16 hours to 49 hours for Paris; from 18 to 46 hours for Dusseldorf; and from 19 hours to 10 days for Milan. Also, in each case the slowest delivery was by the most expensive courier. Customs and border controls were part of the problem, a barrier FedEx did not have in the United States. It is not surprising that Europeans were not enthusiastic users of expensive overnight delivery services. As Martin White of Coopers & Lybrand explains: 'they realized that they get the same level of reliability as they get on an overnight contract, but at a price 30 to 40 per cent lower'. Experienced users quickly started trading on domestic services, but the habit quickly spread to the international market too. The diminished interest in speed took away the aircraft operators' big advantages. FedEx appears to have overestimated the European market for overnight delivery, which reached a maximum of only 100,000 packages daily. Europe's rail network also worked against aircraft; DHL already has a Paris-Brussels train link and plans to increase the triangle to include London. The six-wagon train carries 60 tonnes and costs 811,000 to run, the same as a 12-tonne capacity aircraft. While the attention of FedEx was on its losing international operations, competitors were busy stealing customers at home. In 1989 US competitor Airborne had its best year in company history, achieving an astounding 171 per cent increase in sales, TNT caused a tumult in the industry when it bought up the world's supply of British Aerospace Quiet Trader 146 aircraft, now known in the industry as 'the quiet profit-makers'. This aircraft could fly at night from any airport denied to the noisier old jets used by FedEx and others. This facility proved to be a boon in environmentally conscious California and Germany, where TNT has its European hub. Eventually enough was enough and FedEx began a decisive retreat from its disastrous European campaign. It closed down operations in more than 100 countries, fired 6,600 employees, and contracted with other companies to handle its deliveries to all but 16 large European cities - such as London, Paris and Milan - that it still serves directly. FedEx executives insist that the retreat doesn't mean surrender. The company still leads in the US market, and it has retained a strong base for building more solid international operations. 'Fear of failure must never be a reason not to try something,' said FedEx's chairman and chief executive, Fred Smith. It is an attitude that has cost him dearly.1
QUESTIONS 1. What was the role of quality in the original success of FedEx in the United States?
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Chapter 12 Creating Competitive Advantages 2. Tlow .successful was FedEx in implementing high quality standards in Europe? 3. How did the competition faced by FedEx change between its foundation and its decision to pull out of Europe? 4.
How did the competition faced by FedEx in Europe differ from that it faced in the United States?
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Why did FedEx's attack on the European market fail and how do you think it could have attacked the market more successfully? 6. How did the new competition successfully attack FedEx in its home market and was their success related to FedEx's European venture?
Introduction
competitive advantage Art advantage over competitors gained by offering consumers greater value, either through lower prices or by providing more benefits that justify higher prices. competitor analysis The process of identifying key competitors; assessing their objectives, strategies, strengths and •weaknesses, and reaction patterns; and selecting which competitors to attack or avoid. competitive strategics Strategies that strongly position the company against competitors and that give the company the strongest possible strategic advantage.
Today, understanding customers is not enough. This is a period of intense competition, both foreign and domestic. Many economies are deregulating and encouraging market forces to operate. The EU is removing trade barriers among European nations and deregulating many previously protected markets. Multinationals are moving aggressively into the south-east Asian markets and competing globally. The result is that companies have no choice but to be 'competitive'. They must start paying as much attention to tracking their competitors as to understanding target customers. FedEx at first succeeded by being innovative and providing an excellent service that competitors could not match. Although it was the leader in the United States, its competitive advantage was diminished in the European market where it found new competitors and some of its old competitors already well established. It was not enough for FedEx to invest and provide an excellent service globally. It had to understand how customers and competitors vary across the globe and learn how to be a challenger in new markets. Under the marketing concept, companies gain competitive advantage by designing offers that satisfy target-consumer needs better than competitors1 offers. They might deliver more customer value by offering consumers lower prices than competitors for similar products and services, or by providing more benefits that justify higher prices. Marketing strategies must consider the strategies of competitors as well as the needs of target consumers. The first step is competitor analysis: the process of identifying key competitors; assessing their objectives, strengths and weaknesses, strategies and reaction patterns; and selecting which competitors to attack or avoid. The second step is developing competitive strategies that strongly position the company against competitors and give the company the strongest possible competitive advantage.
Competitor Analysis To plan effective competitive marketing strategies, the company needs to find out all it can about its competitors. It must constantly compare its products, prices, channels and promotion with those of close competitors. In this way the company
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Figure 12.1
Steps in analyzing competitors
can find areas of potential competitive advantage and disadvantage. It can launch more effective marketing campaigns against its competitors and prepare stronger defences against competitors' actions. What do companies need to know about their competitors? They need to know: Who are our competitorsV What are their objectives? What are their strategies? What are their strengths and weaknesses? What are their reaction patterns? Figure 12.1 shows the main steps in analyzing competitors.
Identifying the Company's Competitors Normally, it would seem a simple matter for a company to identify its competitors. Coca-Cola knows that Pepsi is its strongest competitor; and Caterpillar knows that it competes with Komatsu. At the most obvious level, a company can define its product category competition as other companies offering a similar product and services to the same customers at similar priecs. Thus Volvo might sue Saab as a foremost competitor, but not Fiat or Ferrari. In competing for people's money, however, companies actually face a much wider range of competitors. More broadly, the company can define its product competition as all firms making the same product or class of products. Volvo could see itself as competing against all other car manufacturers. Even more broadly, competitors might include all companies making products that supply the same service. Here Volvo would see itself competing against not only other car manufacturers, but also the makers of trucks, motor cycles or even bicycles. Finally and still more broadly, competitors might include all companies that compete for the same consumer's money. Here Volvo would see itself competing with companies that sell major consumer durables, foreign holidays, new homes or extensive home repairs or alterations. Companies must avoid 'competitor myopia'. A company is more likely to be 'buried' by its latent competitors than its current ones. For example, Eastman Kodak worries about growing competition for its film business from Fuji, the Japanese filmmaker. However, Kodak faces a much greater threat from the recent advances in 'digital camera' technology. These cameras, sold by Canon and Sony, take video still pictures transmitted on a TV set, turned into hard copy and later erased. What greater threat is there to a film business than a filmless camera?2
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• industry
A group affirms which offer a product or class of products chat are close substitutes for each other. The set of all sellers of a produce or
The Industry Point of View
Many companies identify their competitors from the industry point of view. An industry is a group of firms that offer a product or class of products that are close substitutes for each other. We talk about the car industry, the oil industry, the pharmaceutical industry or the beverage industry. In a given industry, if the price of one product rises, it causes the demand for another product to rise. In the beverage industry, for example, if the price of coffee rises, this leads people to switch to tea or lemonade or soft drinks. Coffee, tea, lemonade and soft drinks are substitutes, even though they are physically different products. A company must strive to understand the competitive pattern in its industry if it hopes to be an effective 'player' in that industry.
• The Market Point, of View Instead of identifying competitors from the industry point of view, the company can take a market point of view. Here it defines its task competition as companies that are trying to satisfy the same customer need or serve the same customer group. From an industry point of view, Heineken might see its competition as Beck's, Guinness, Garlsberg and other brewers. From a market point of view, however, the task eompetition may include all 'thirst quenching' or 'social drinking'. Iced tea, fruit juice, 'designer' water and many other drinks could satisfy the needs. Similarly, Crayola might define its task competitors as other makers of crayons and children's drawing supplies. Alternatively, from a market point of view, it would include as competitors all firms making recreational products for the children's market. Generally, the market concept of competition opens the company's eyes to a broader set of actual and potential competitors. This leads to better long-run market planning. The key to identifying competitors is to link industry and market analysis by mapping out product/market segments. Figure 12.2 shows the product/market segments in the toothpaste market by product types and customer age groups. We see that P & G (with several versions of Crest and Gleam) and Colgate-Palmolive {with Colgate) occupy nine of the segments; Lever Brothers (Aim), three; and Bceeham (Aqua Fresh) and Topol, two. If Topol wanted to enter other segments, it would need to estimate the market size of each segment, the market shares of the current competitors, and their current capabilities, objectives and strategies. Clearly each product/market segment would pose different competitive problems and opportunities.
Determining Competitors' Objectives Having identified the main competitors, marketing management now asks: What does each competitor seek in the marketplace? What drives each competitor's behaviour? The marketer might at first assume that all competitors would want to maximize their profits and choose their actions accordingly. However, companies differ in the emphasis they put on short-term versus long-term profits, and some competitors are oriented towards 'satisfying' rather than 'maximizing' profits. They have profit goals that satisfy them, even if the strategics eould produce more profits. Marketers must look beyond competitors' profit goals. Each competitor has a mix of objectives, each with differing importance. The company wants to know the relative importance that competitors place on current profitability, market
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Customer segmentation Age 19-35
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Figure 12.2
Product/market segments for toothpaste
share growth, cash flow, technological leadership, service leadership and other goals. Knowing a competitor's objectives reveals if it is satisfied with its current situation and how it might react to competitive actions. For example, a company that pursues low-cost leadership will react much more strongly to a competitor's cost-reducing manufacturing breakthrough than to the same competitor's advertising increase. A company must also monitor its competitors' objectives for attacking various product/market segments. If the company finds that a competitor has discovered a new segment, this might be,-in opportunity. If it finds that competitors plan new moves into segments now served by the company, itwill be forewarned and, hopefully, forearmed.
Identifying Competitors' Strategies The more that one firm's strategy resembles another firm's strategy, the more the firms compete. In most industries, the competitors sort into groups that pursue different strategies. A strategic group is a group of firms in an industry following the same or a similar strategy in a given target market. For example, in the major appliance industry, Eleetrolux, Ilotpoint and Zanussi all belong to the same strategic group. Each produces a full line of medium-price appliances supported by good service. Quality-oriented Bosch and stylish AJessi, on the other hand, belong to a different strategic group. They both produce a narrow line of appliances and charge a premium price. Some important insights emerge from strategic group identification. For example, if a company enters one of die groups, the members of that group
strategic group
A group affirms in an industry following the same or a similar strategy.
510 • Chapter 12 Creating Competitive Advantages become its key competitors. Thus, if the company enters the first group against Electrolux, Ilotpoint and Zanussi, it can succeed only it' it develops some strategic advantages over these large competitors. Although competition is most intense within a strategic group, there is also rivalry among groups. First, some of the strategic groups may appeal to overlapping customer segments. For example, no matter what their strategy, all major appliance manufacturers will go after the apartment and home builders segment. Second, the customers may not see much difference in the offers of different groups - they may see little difference in quality between Electrolux and Bosch. Finally, members of one strategic group might expand into new strategy segments, as Ilotpoint has done by extending its washing machine range to approach Bosch's prices. The company needs to look at all the dimensions that identify strategic groups within the industry. It needs to know each competitor's product quality, features ami mix; customer services; pricing policy; distribution coverage; sales force strategy; and advertising and sales promotion programmes. It must study the details of each competitor's R & D, manufacturing, buying, financial and other strategies.
Assessing Competitors' Strengths and Weaknesses
benchmarking
The process of comparing the company's products and processes to those of competitors or leading firms in other industries to find ways to improve quality and performance.
Can a company's competitors carry out their strategics and reach their goals? This depends on each competitor's resources and capabilities. Marketers need to identify accurately each competitor's strengths and weaknesses. As a first step, a company gathers key data on each competitor's business over the last few years. It wants to know about competitors' goals, strategies and performance. Admittedly, some of this information will be hard to collect. For example, industrial goods companies find it hard to estimate competitors' market shares because they do not have the same syndicated data services that are available ro consumer packaged goods companies. Still, any information they can find will help them form a better estimate of each competitor's strengths and weaknesses. Companies normally learn about their competitors' strengths and weaknesses through secondary data, personal experience and hearsay. They can also increase their knowledge by conducting primary marketing research with customers, suppliers and dealers. Recently, a growing number of companies have turned to benchmarking, comparing the company's products and processes to those of competitors or leading firms in other industries to find ways of improving quality and performance. Benchmarking has become a powerful tool for increasing a company's competitiveness (see Marketing Highlight 12.1). In searching for competitors' weaknesses, the company should try to identify any assumptions they make about their business and the market that are no longer valid. Some companies believe they produce the best quality in the industry when this is no longer true. Many companies are victims of rules of thumb such as 'customers prefer full-line companies', 'the sales force is the only important marketing tool' or 'customers value service more than price'. If a competitor is operating on a significant wrong assumption, the company can take advantage of it.
Estimating Competitors' Reaction Patterns A competitor's objectives, strategies and strengths and weaknesses explain ils likely actions, and its reactions to moves such as a price cut, a promotion increase or a new product introduction. In addition, each competitor has a certain
Competitor Analysis • 511 philosophy of doing business, a certain internal culture and guiding beliefs. Marketing managers need ;i deep understanding of a given competitor's mentality if they want to anticipate how that competitor will act or react. Each competitor reacts differently. Some do not react quickly or strongly to a competitor's move: they may feel that their customers are loyal; they may be slow in noticing the move; they may lack the funds to react. Some competitors react only to certain types of assault and not to others. They might always respond strongly to price cuts in order to signal that these will never succeed. But they might not respond at all to advertising increases, believing these to be less threatening. Other competitors react swiftly and strongly to any assault. As Unilever has found with its Persil/Omo Power, P & G does not let a new detergent come easily into the market. Many firms avoid direct competition with P & G and look for easier prey, knowing that P & G will fight fiercely if challenged. Finally, some competitors show no predictable reaction pattern. They might or might not react on a given occasion and there is no way to foresee what they will do based on their economics, history or anything else, hi some industries, competitors live in relative harmony; in others, they fight constantly. Knowing how key competitors react gives the company clues on how best to attack competitors or how best to defend the company's current positions,-1
Selecting Competitors to Attack and Avoid Management has already largely determined its main competitors through prior decisions on customer targets, distribution channels and marketing-mix strategy. These decisions define the strategic group to which the company belongs. Management must now decide which competitors to compete against most vigorously. The company can focus its attack on one of several classes of competitors.
Strong or Weak Competitors Most companies prefer to aim their shots at their weak competitors. This requires less resources and time. Conversely, the firm may gain little. Alternatively, the firm should also compete with strong competitors to sharpen its abilities. Furthermore, even strong competitors have some weaknesses and succeeding against them often provides greater returns. A useful tool for assessing competitor strengths and weaknesses is customer value analysis — asking customers what benefits they value and how they rate the company versus competitors on important attributes (see Marketing Highlight 12.2), Customer value analysis also points out areas in which the company is vulnerable to competitors' actions.
Close or Distant Competitors Most companies will compete with those competitors who resemble them the most. Thus, Citroen/Peugeot competes more against Renault than against Porsche. At the same time, the company may want to avoid trying to 'destroy' a close competitor. Here is an example of a questionable 'victory'; Bausch & Lomb in the late 1970s moved aggressively against other soft lens manufacturers with great success. However, this led one after another competitor to sell out to larger firms such as Revlon, ScheringI'lough and Johnson & Johnson. The result was that Bausch & Lomb faced much larger competitors - and it suffered the consequences. For
customer value analysis Analysis conducted to determine what benefits target customers value and how they rate the relative value of various competitors' offers.
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How Benchmarking Helps Improve Competitive Performance
Marketing Highlight 12.1
In most industries, one or more companies are known to outperform their competitors. According to McKinsey, the management consultants, industry leaders typically develop products two-and-ahalf times faster than the industry average. Anderson Consulting consistently found 2:1 differences in productivity between world-class plants and the remainder. The quality gaps they found ranged from 9:1 to a staggering 170:1. Richard Buetow, Motorola's director of quality, sees even bigger differences: 'Best-in-class companies', he says, 'have error rates 500 to 1,000 times lower than average.' Benchmarking i.s the art of finding out how and why some companies perform tasks much better than others. A benchmarking company aims to imitate or, better still, to improve upon the best practices of other companies. The Japanese used benchmarking persistently after the Second World War, copying many American products and practices. In 1979 Xerox undertook one of the first western benchmarking projects. Xerox wanted to learn how Japanese competitors were able to produce more reliable copiers and charge prices below Xerox's production costs. It started with its Japanese subsidiary Fuji Xerox, where it found that Canon could sell a photocopier for less than Xerox could make one in the United States. By buying Japanese copiers and analyzing them through 'reverse engineering', Xerox learned how to greatly improve its own copiers' reliability and costs. However, Xerox did not stop there. It went on to ask additional questions: Are Xerox scientists and engineers among the best in their respective specialities? Are Xerox marketing and sales people and practices among the best in the world? To answer these questions, the company had to identify world-class, 'best practice' companies and learn from them. Although benchmarking initially focused on studying other companies' products and services, it later expanded to include benchmarking work processes, staff func-
tions, organizational performance and the entire customer value deliver;' process. Another early benchmarking pioneer was Ford. Ford was losing sales to Japanese and European car makers. Don Peterson, then chairman of Ford, instructed his engineers and designers to build a new ear that combined the 400 features that Ford customers said were the most important. If Saab made the best seats, then Ford should copy Saab's seats. If Toyota had the best fuel gauge and BMW had the best tyre and jack storage system, then Ford should copy these features also. Peterson went further: he asked the engineers to 'better the best' where possible. When finished, Peterson claimed that the highly successful new car (the Taurus) had improved upon, not just copied, the best features found in competing cars. hi Europe Ind Coope Retail and WooKvorth use statistical models to benchmark the performance of their outlets. This allows them to compare the performance of pubs and shops even though they operate in different environments. Benchmarking has also meant them finding other companies with similar systems in use. Today many companies, such as AT & T, Du Pont, Ehda Gibbs, Ind Coope, Intel, Lucas, Marriott and Motorola, use benchmarking as a standard tool. Some companies benchmark the best companies in their industry. For instance. ICL, a British computer company now owned by Japan's Fujitsu, benchmarks Sun Microsystems for manufacturing, However, when ICL wanted to benchmark distribution systems, it chose retailer Marks & Spencer as the best benchmark. In this sense, benchmarking goes beyond standard 'competitive analysis'. Benchmark against the 'best practices' in the world, not just against direct competitors. Once a company commits to benchmarking, it may try to benchmark every activity. It may set up a benchmarking department to promote the practice and to teach benchmarking techniques to departmental people. Yet benchmarking takes time and costs money. Companies should focus their benchmarking efforts only on critical tasks
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that deeply affect customer satisfaction and company costs, and for which substantially better performance is known to exist. How can a company identify 'best-practice' companies? As a good starting point, it can ask customers, suppliers and distributors whom they rate as doing the best job. Alternatively, it can contact big consulting firms that have built large files of 'best practices'. An important point is that benchmarkers need to resort to industrial espionage. Japan's Canon and the United Kingdom's Lucas Industries encourage reciprocal visits from companies that they use as benchmarks. 'Industrial dating agencies', such as the Benchmarking Centre and the international Denchmarking Clearing House (IBC), now exist to help firms find partners. After identifying the 'best practice' companies, the company needs to measure their performance regarding cost, time and quality. For example, a company studying its supply management process found that its buying cost was four times higher, its supplier selection time four times longer, and its delivery time sixteen times worse than world-class competitors. Companies must be careful not to rely too much on benchmarking. Since benchmarking takes other companies' performance as a starting point, it might hamper real creativity. It might lead to an only marginally better product or practice when other companies are leapfrogging ahead. Too often, benchmarking studies take many months, so by the time they are completed.
better practices may have emerged elsewhere. Benchmarking might cause the company to focus too much on competitors while losing touch with consumers' changing needs. Finally, benchmarking might distract from making further improvements in die company's core competences. When Roberto Schisano joined Alitalia, he found another way in which b en dim,-irking can go wrong: 'Our previous benchmarks were the soso bunch,' he said, 'the other European state airlines, not those seeking to be market leaders like BA or Southwest. And when one mentioned losses, the reply was 'Oh, we're not as bad as Air France.'
example, Johnson & Johnson acquired Vistakon, a small nicher that served the tiny portion of the contact-lens market for people with astigmatism. Racked by J & J's deep pockets, however, Vistakon proved a formidable opponent. When the small but nimble Vistakon unit introduced its innovative Acuvue disposable lenses, the much larger Bausch & Lomb had to take some of its own medicine. According to one analyst, 'The speed of the [AcuvueJ roll-out and the novelty of [J & J's] big-budget ads left giant Bausch & Lomb .. seeing stars.' By 1992, J & J's Vistakon was no. 1 in the fast-growing disposable contact-lens market. 4 In this case, the company's success in hurting a close rival brought in tougher competitors.
• 'Well-Behaved'or 'Disruptive* Competitors ^ company really needs and benefits from competitors. The existence of competitors results in several strategic benefits. Competitors may help increase total
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Customer Value Analysis: The Key to CompetitiveAdvantage
Marketing Highlight 12.2
In analyzing competitors and searching for competitive advantage, one of the most important marketing tools is customer value analysis. The aim of a customer value analysis is to determine the benefits that target customers value and how they rate the relative value of various competitors' offers. The main steps in customer value analysis are as follows: 1.
Identify the chief attributes that customers value. Various people in the company may have different ideas on what customers value. Thus the company's marketing researchers must ask customers themselves what features and performance levels they look for in choosing a product or seller. Different customers will mention different features and benefits. If the list gets too long, the researcher can remove overlapping attributes. 2. Assess the importance of different attributes. Ask customers to rate or rank the importance of the different factors. If the customers differ very much in their ratings, group them into different customer segments. 3. Assess the company's and the competitors' performance on different customer values against the values' rated importance. Next ask customers where they rate each competitor's performance on each attribute. Ideally, the company's performance will be high on the attributes that customers value most and low on the attributes that customers
value least. Two pieces of bad news would be: (a) the company's performance ranks high on some minor attributes - a ease of 'overkill'; and (b) the company's performance ranks low on some important attributes - a ease of 'underkill'. The company must also look at how competitors rate on the important attributes.
4. Examine hoiv customers in a specific segment rate the company's performance against a specific large competitor on an attribute-by-attribute basis. The key to gaining competitive advantage is to take each customer segment and examine how the company's offer compares with that of its main competitor. If the company's offer exceeds the competitor's offer on all important attributes, the company can charge a higher price and earn higher profits, or it can charge the same price and gain more market share. If the company is performing at a lower level than its main competitor on some important attributes, it must invest in strengthening those attributes or finding other important attributes where it can build a lead on the competitor. Monitor customer values over time. Although customer values are fairly stable in the short run, they will probably change us competing technologies and features appear and as customers face different economic climates. A company that assumes that customer values will remain stable flirts with danger. The company must review customer values and competitors' standing periodically if it wants to remain strategically effective.
demand. They share the costs of market and product development, and help to legitimize new technology. They may serve less attractive segments or lead to more product differentiation. Finally, they may improve bargaining power against labour or regulators. However, a company may not view all of its competitors as beneficial. An industry often contains 'well-behaved' competitors and 'disruptive' competitors/ Well-behaved competitors play by the rules of the industry. They favour a stable and healthy industry, set prices in a reasonable relation to costs, motivate others
Competitive Stra regies • 515 to lower costs or improve differentiation, and aceept a reasonable level of market share and profits. Disruptive competitors, on the other hand, break the rules. They try to buy share rather than earn it, take large risks, invest in overcapacity and generally shake: up the industry. For example, British Airways finds KLM and United to be well-behaved competitors because they play by the rules and attempt to set their fares sensibly. Conversely, RA finds Air France and Olympic disruptive competitors because they destabilize the airline industry through their overextended networks and dependence on state handouts. A company might be smart to support well-behaved competitors, aiming its attacks at disruptive competitors - as, for instance, in the attempt by several airlines, spearheaded by RA, KLM and SAS, to block the European Commission's approval of a Ffr20 billion package of state aid for Air France.6 The implication is that 'well-behaved' companies should try to shape an industry that consists only of well-behaved competitors. Through careful licensing, selective retaliation and coalitions, they can make competitors behave rationally and harmoniously, follow the rules, try to earn share rather than buy it, and differentiate somewhat to compete less directly.
Designing the Competitive Intelligence System We have described the main types of information that company decision-makers need to know about their competitors. This information needs collecting, interpreting, distributing and using. Although the cost in money and time of gathering competitive intelligence is high, the cost of not gathering it is higher. Yet the company must.design its competitive intelligence system in a cost-effective way. The competitive intelligence system first identifies the vital types of competitive information and the best sources of this information. Then the system continuously collects information from the field (sales force, channels, suppliers, market research firms, trade associations) and from published data (government publications, speeches, articles). Next the system checks the information for validity and reliability, interprets it and organizes it in an appropriate way. Finally, it sends key information to relevant decision-makers and responds to enquiries from managers about competitors. With this system, company managers will receive timely information about competitors in the form of phone calls, bulletins, newsletters and reports. In addition, managers can contact the system when they need an interpretation of a competitor's sudden move, or when they require to know a competitor's weaknesses and strengths or how a competitor will respond to a planned company move. Smaller companies that cannot afford to set up a formal competitive intelligence office can assign specific executives to watch specific competitors. Thus a manager who used to work for a competitor might follow closely all developments connected with that competitor; he or she would be the 'in-house' expert on that competitor. Any manager needing to know the thinking of a given competitor could contact the assigned in-house expert.7
Competitive Strategies Having identified and evaluated the main competitors, the company must now design competitive marketing strategies that best position its offer against
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competitors' offerings.8 What broad marketing strategies can the company use? Which ones are best for a particular company or for the company's different divisions and products? No one strategy is best for all companies. Eaeh company must determine what makes the most sense, given its position in the industry and its objectives, opportunities and resources. Even within a company, different businesses or products need different strategies. Johnson & Johnson uses one marketing strategy for its leading brands in stable consumer markets and a different marketing strategy for its new high-tech healthcare businesses and products. Recognizing the difference in the way its business had to be treated, the ICI chemicals company spun off its biosciences activities as a separately quoted company, Zeneca,9 We now look at broad competitive marketing strategies that companies can uwe.
Competitive Positions Finns competing in a given target market will, at any moment, differ in their objectives and resources. Some firms will be large, others small. Some will have great resources, others will he strapped for funds. Some will be old and established, others new and fresh. Some will strive for rapid market share growth, others for long-term profits. And the firms will occupy different competitive pos- j itions in the target market. Michael Porter suggests four basic competitive positioning strategies that companies can follow — three winning strategies and one losing one.10 The three winning strategies are:
Competitive Strategies • 517 1,
Overall cost leadership. Here the company works hard to achieve the lowest costs of production and distribution, so that it can price lower than its competitors and win a large market share. Texas Instruments and Amstrad are leading practitioners of this strategy. In the steel industry, big is not beautiful any more; small mini-mills, including Nucor and Chaparral Steel, which use electric furnaces to convert scrap metal, arc undercutting the large integrated suppliers.
2, Differentiation. Here the company concentrates on creating a highly differentiated product line and marketing programme, so that it comes aeross as the class leader in the industry. Most customers would prefer to own this brand if its price is not too high. Bose and Glaxo follow this strategy in ultra-small speakers and ethical drugs, respectively. 3, Focus. Here the company focuses its effort on serving a few market segments well rather than going after the whole market. Many firms in northern Italy excel at this. Among them are Luxottiea, the world's leading maker of spectacle frames, pasta makers Barilla and many dynamic small firms in the Prato textile industry. In 1993 Nbvo No relist was Denmark's twelfth largest company by turnover, but made more profits than any other by focusing on Insulin and industrial enzymes. It is a research-led company that 'continues to take market share away from Its competitors on the back of sophisticated delivery systems'.' Companies that pursue a clear strategy - one of the above - are likely to perform well. The firm that carries out that strategy best will make the most profits. Firms that do not pursue a clear strategy - middle-of-the-roaders — do the worst. Olivetti, Philips and International Harvester all came upon difficult times because they did not stand out as the lowest in cost, highest in perceived value or best in serving some market segment. Middle-of-the-roaders try to be good on all strategic counts, but end up being not very good at anything (see Marketing Highlight 12.3). More recently, two marketing consultants, Michael Treacy and Fred Wiersema, offered a new classification of competitive marketing strategies. 12 They suggest that companies gain leadership positions by delivering superior value to their customers. Companies can pursue any of three strategies — called value disciplines - for delivering superior customer value. These are: 1. Operational excellence. The company provides superior value by leading its industry in price and convenience. It works to reduce costs and to create a lean and efficient value delivery system. It serves customers who want reliable, good quality products or services, but who want them cheaply and easily. Examples include Virgin Direct and Dell Computer. 2. Customer intimacy. The company provides superior value by precisely segmenting its markets and then tailoring its products or services to match exactly the needs of targeted customers. It specializes in satisfying unique eustomer needs through a close relationship with and intimate knowledge of the customer. It builds detailed customer databases for segmenting and targeting, and empowers its marketing people to respond quickly to customer needs. It serves customers who are willing to pay a premium to get precisely what they want, and it will do almost anything to build long-term customer loyalty and to capture customer lifetime value. Examples include Harrods, BA and Kraft General Foods. ,1 Product leadership. The company provides superior value by offering a continuous stream of leading-edge products or services that make their own
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Competitive Strategy: Don't Play in the Middle of the Road
Marketing Highlight
in the middle, but to come across as better value. Still, the product remains in that not-cheap, notexpensive limbo - a very tough sell. An average image also haunts Sears in the United States, which has seen its middle-income customer defect either to discount outlets or to trendier speciality stores. It is scrambling to revitalize sales by stocking more national brands and running slicker, more stylish ads to project an image that's a step up from plain vanilla. Sears claims that this image-building programme has been successful, but consumer perceptions die hard. Sears has yet to establish a clear and distinctive position. As one image consultant suggests; 'Sears doesn't stand for anything consumers aspire to.' For some, it finally gets to the point where the middle market is just not worth it. Marriott tried to string its Bob's Big Boy, Allic's and Wag's coffee shops into a single chain of casual restaurants. It was a vague niche that few consumers wanted. The restaurants were not as cheap or as appealing to children as fast food, nor could they please adults with an attractive dining-out atmosphere, Marriott ended up quitting the restaurant business. 'We were sandwiched in the middle,' a Marriott spokesman says. In the hotel industry, where chains have spread rapidly, companies are trying to escape the middle by extending their reach to cover people needing smaller units or wanting higherpriced ones. Holiday Inn, which no longer has the casual family traveller all to itself, has added a more up-market Holiday Inns Crown Plaza. Thus, to win in the marketplace, a company must gain competitive advantage by offering something that competitors do not. It might offer consumers the best price for a given level of quality or offer a differentiated product - one with unique features or higher quality for which consumers arc willing to pay a higher price. It might focus on serving the special needs of a specific market segment. Sadly, companies in the middle usually end up not being very good at anything. Some big losers finally have to seek protection from creditors in the bankruptcy courts. That
12.3
Being mainstream used to be a blessing for products. Now it is becoming a curse. Today, companies in most industries face slow-growing and fiercely competitive markets. Solid middle-of-theroad names like Olivetti and Holiday Inn are struggling against a lot of new competitors that strike from both above and below. Encircled by rivals offering either more luxurious goods or plain cheaper ones, companies with products in the middle are finding their market shares dwindling. They are striving to break away from the image of being 'just average'. 'Getting stuck in the middle is a terrible fate,' notes one advertising agency executive. '[You remain] a mass brand as the market splinters.' Examples abound of products and services caught in the middle — adequate but not exciting — losing ground to more clearly positioned competitors at both the high and low ends. For example, swanky stores such as Timbcrland and budget outlets such as Aldi arc prospering, while breadand-butter Argyll stores flounder. Haagen-Dazs, Ben & Jerry's and other 'super-premium' ice creams arc thriving - as are grocers' own bargain labels - while middle brands such as Crosse & Blackwell are struggling. Travellers want either economy lodging at chains such as Travel Lodge or to sleep in the lap of luxury, leaving adequate but neither inexpensive nor plush hoteliers such as Novotel and Holiday Inn in the lurch. Thus brands in the 'murky middle' are facing increasing pressure from competitors at both ends of die spectrum. Notes the advertising executive: 'There's no future for products everyone likes a little.' If a brand in the middle cannot sell on prestige, it has to compete on value. To make Sealtest stand out against own-brand ice creams, Kraft borrowed tactics from fancier brands. It recently added a layer of cellophane inside the carton. It also made the package's graphics cleaner and more modern. The idea is to keep die price about
Competitive Strategies • 519
happened to Germany's Klockner-Werkc, a highcost, undersized steel and engineering group. The moral? Do not play in the murky middle of the road.
and competing products obsolete. It is open to new ideas, relentlessly pursues new solutions, and works to reduce cycle times so that it can get new products to market quickly. It serves customers who want state-of-theart products and services, regardless of the costs in terms of price or inconvenience. Examples include Nokia, Tefal and Nike. Some companies successfully pursue more than one value discipline at the same time. For example. Federal Express excels at both operational excellence and customer intimacy in the US. However, such companies are rare - few firms can be the best at more than one of these disciplines. By trying to be good at all of the value disciplines, a company usually ends up being best at none. Treacy and Wiersema have found that leading companies focus on and excel at a single value discipline, while meeting industry standards on the other two. They design their entire value delivery system to support singlc-mindedly the chosen discipline. For example, Benetton knows that customer intimacy and product leadership are important. Compared with other clothes shops, it offers good customer service and an excellent product assortment. Still, it offers less customer service and less depth in its product assortment than some other retailers do. Instead, it focuses obsessively on operational excellence - on reducing costs and streamlining its order-to-deli very process in order to make it convenient for customers to buy just the right products at the lowest prices. Classifying competitive strategies as value disciplines is appealing. It defines marketing strategy in terms of the single-minded pursuit of delivering superior value to customers. It recognizes that management must align every aspect of the company with the chosen value discipline - from its culture, to its organization structure, to its operating and management systems and processes.
Competitive Moves Businesses maintain their position in the marketplace by making competitive mows to attack competitors or defend themselves against competitive threats. These moves change with the role that firms play in the target market - that of leading, challenging, following or niching. Suppose that an industry contains the firms shown in Figure 12.3. Some 40 per cent of the market is in the hands of the market leader, the firm with the largest market share. Another 30 per cent is in the hands of a market challenger, a runner-up that is fighting hard to increase its market share. Another 20 per cent is in the hands of a market follower, another runner-up that wants to hold its share without rocking the boat. The remaining 10 per cent is in the hands of market nichers, firms that serve small segments not being pursued by other firms. We now look at specific marketing strategies that are available to market leaders, challengers, followers and nichers. In the sections that follow, you should remember that the classifications of competitive positions often apply not to a
market leader The,firm in an industry with the largest market share; it usually leads other firms in price changes, neve product introductions, distribution coverage and promotion spending. market clialleuger A runner-up firm in an industry that infighting hard to increase its market shure. market follower A runner-up firm in an industry that wants to hold its share without rocking the boat. market nicher A firm in an industry that nerves small segments that the other firms overlook or ignore.
520 • Chapter 12 Creating Competitive Advantages
Figure 12.3
Market structure
whole company, but only to its position in a specific; industry. For example, large and diversified companies sueh as P & G, Unilever, Nestle, Proeordia or Soeiete Generate de Belgique - or their individual businesses, divisions or produets I might be leaders in some markets and niehers in others. For example, Procter & Gambit leads in dishwashing and laundry detergents, disposable nappies and shampoo, but it is a challenger to Unilever in hand soaps. Companies' competitive strengths also vary geographically. Buying Alpo from Grand Metropolitan in 1994 made Nestle the challenger in the US pet-foods market behind Ralston Purina's 18 per cent share. However, in the submarket for US canned cat food, Nestle has a commanding 39 per cent share. By contrast, in the fragmented European petfoods market, Nestle Friskies languishes in fourth place behind Mars' Pedigree (47 per cent), Dalgety and Quaker. However, even wtth that low base, Nestle's Go Cat is Europe's top-selling dry cat food.'
Market-Leader Strategies Most industries contain an acknowledged market leader. The leader has the largest market share and usually leads the other firms in price changes, new product introductions, distribution coverage and promotion spending. The leader may or may not be admired, but other firms concede its dominance. The leader is a focal point for competitors, a company to challenge, imitate or avoid. Some of the best-known market leaders are Boeing (airliners), Nestle (food). Microsoft (software), L'Oreal (cosmetics), Royal Dutch/Shell (oil). McDonald's (fast food] and De Beer (diamonds). A leading firm's life is not easy. It must maintain a constant watch. Other firms keep challenging its strengths or trying to take advantage of its weaknesses. The market leader can easily miss a turn in the market and plunge into second or third place. A product innovation may come along and hurt the leader - as when Tylenol's non-aspirin painkiller took the lead from Bayer Aspirin or when P & G's Tide, the first synthetic laundry detergent, beat Unilever's leading brands. Sometimes leading firms grow fat and slow, losing out against new and more energetic rivals - Xerox's share of the world copier market fell from over 80 per cent to
Competitive Strategies • 521 The London International Group defend their leading position focusing on the growth markets they dominate.
less than 35 per cent in just five years when Fuji and Canon challenged it with cheaper and more reliable copiers. Leading firms want to remain no. 1, This calls for action on four fronts. First, the firm must find ways to expand total demand. Second, the firm can try to expand its market share further, even if market size remains constant. Third, a company can retain its strength by reducing its costs. Fourthly, the firm must protect its current market share through good defensive and offensive actions (Figure 12.4).
• Expanding the Total Market The leading firm normally gains the most when the total market expands. If people take more pictures, then as the market leader, Kodak stands to gain the most. If Kodak can persuade more people to take pictures, or to take pictures on more occasions, or to take more pictures on each occasion, it will benefit greatly. Generally, the market leader should look for new users, new uses and more usage of its products. NEW USERS. Every product class can attract buyers who are still unaware of the product, or who are resisting it because of its price or its lack of certain features. A seller can usually find new users in many places. For example, L'Orfial might find new fragrance users in its current markets by convincing women who do nor use expensive fragrance to try it. Or it might find users in new demographic segments; for instance, men's fragrances are currently a small but fastgrowing market. Or it might expand into new geographic segments, perhaps by selling its fragrances to the new wealthy in eastern Europe. Johnson's Baby Shampoo provides a classic example of developing new users. When the baby boom had passed and the birth rate slowed down, the company grew concerned about future sales growth, J & J's marketers noticed that other
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Figure 12.4
Market leader strategies family members sometimes used the baby shampoo for their own hair. Management developed an advertising campaign aimed at adults. In a short time, Johnson's Baby Shampoo became a leading brand in the total shampoo market. NEW USES. The marketer can expand markets by discovering and promoting new uses for the product. DuPont's nylon is an example of new-use expansion. Every time nylon became a mature product, some new use appeared. Nylon was first used as a fibre for parachutes; then for women's stockings; later as a leading material in shirts and blouses; and still later in vehicle tyres, upholstery and earpetirig. Another example of new-use expansion is Arm & Hammer baking soda. Its sales had flattened after 125 years. Then the company discovered that consumers were using baking soda as a refrigerator deodorizer. It launched a heavy advertising and publicity campaign focusing on this use and persiuided consumers to place an open box of baking soda in their refrigerators and to replace it every few months. MORE USAGE. A third market expansion strategy is to persuade people to use the product more often or to use more per occasion. Campbell encoxirages people to consume more of its soup by running ads using it as an ingredient in recipes in women's magazines. P & G advises users that its Head & Shoulders shampoo is more effective with two applications instead of one per hair wash. The Michelin Tyre Company found a creative way to increase usage per occasion. It wanted French car owners to drive more miles per year, resulting in more tyre replacement. Michelin began rating French restaurants on a three-star system and publishing them in its Red Guides. It reported that many of the best restaurants were in the south of France, leading many Parisians to take weekend drives south. Michelin also publishes its Green Guide containing maps and graded sights to encourage additional travel.
• Expanding Market Share Market leaders can also grow by increasing their market shares further. In many markets, small market-share increases mean very large sales increases. For
Competitive Strategies • 52.1 Gillette is building on its strength in the marfeet place by moving into the women's market.
example, in the coffee market, a 1 per cent increase in market share is worth million; in soft drinks, $440 million! No wonder normal competition turns into marketing warfare in such markets. Many studies have found that profitability rises with increasing market share, 14 Businesses with very large relative market shares averaged substantially higher returns on investment. Because of these findings, many companies have sought expanded market shares to improve profitability. General Electric, for example, declared that it wants to be at least no. 1 or 2 in each of its markets or else get out, GE shed its computer, air-eonditioiiing, small appliances and television businesses because il could not aehieve a top-dog position in these industries. Nestle intends to hold its position as the world's leading food company, although France's Danone also has designs on that spot. Both have been acquiring businesses, Nestle buying Perrier and Rowntree among others, while Danone own Jacobs, Kronenbourg, Amora, Lee & Perrins and IIP sauce.15 There are three main ways by which these firms can further increase their leading position. WlN CUSTOMERS. Winning competitors' customers is rarely easy. Sales promotions and price reductions can produce increased share quickly, but such gains are made at the expense of profitability and disappear once the promotion ends. Exceptions to this are price fights stimulated by market leaders with more resources than competitors. The financial strength of Rupert Murdoch's global media empire has allowed him to gain share in newspaper and satellite TV markets by pricing very aggressively over an extended period. More often market share gains are achieved by long-term investment in quality, innovation or brand building. For instance, Mercedes C class model (replacing the ageing 190) helped the company increase its salc.s by 23 per cent. Sales were up 40 per cent in western Europe (excluding Germany), 34 per cent in the United States and 30 per cent in
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Japan. !n Germany the 38 per cent growth gave a 2 per cent rise in market share. The company hopes to repeat that success with the much smaller A class. WlN COMPETITORS. Leading mature companies often find it easier to buy competitors rather than win their customers. Sometimes this can launch the company into new sectors, as did BMW's purchase of the Rover Group with its small ears and cross-country vehicles, or the £23 billion merger of GrandMet and Guinness to form Diageo, the world's largest alcoholic drinks company. More often it is a dash for firms to achieve scale by acquiring businesses similar to themselves. This is occurring among European insurers as Zurich bids for BAT Industries' insurance arm, Allianz AG and Credit Suisse battle it out over Assurance Gcncralc de France, while Generale de France itself fights for Warms, and Prudential bids for Scottish Amicable.' WlN LOYALTY. Loyalty schemes have grown hugely in recent years. At their best these are attempts to build customer relationships based on the lon£-run customer satisfaction discussed in Chapter 11, In the UK grocery market Tesco challenged and overtook Salisbury's as the market leader by introducing a hugely popular loyalty scheme while Sainsbury's was resisting the trend. Too often these schemes are sales promotions where the customer's loyalty is to the scheme, not the company using it. To have any lasting effects they must establish customer relationships that go beyond collecting points that are redeemable against a gift. Such schemes are easy to follow and once everyone has one, they impose a cost with little benefit. Gaining increased market share will improve a company's profitability automatically. Much depends on its strategy for gaining increased market share. We see many high-share companies with low profitability and many low-share companies with high profitability. The cost of buying higher market share may far exceed the returns. Higher shares tend to produce higher profits only when unit costs fall with increased market share, or when the company's premium price covers the cost of supplying higher-quality goods. In addition, many industries contain one or a few highly profitable large firms, several profitable and more focused firms, and a large number of mediumsized firms with poorer profit performance: The large firms .. tend to address the entire market, achieving cost advantages and high market share by realizing economies of scale. The small competitors reap high profits by focusing on some narrower segment of the business and by developing specialized approaches to production, marketing and distribution for that segment. Ironically, the medium-sized competitors .. often show the poorest profit performance. Trapped in a strategic (No Man's Land', they are too large to reap the benefits of more focused competition, yet too small to benefit from the economies of scale that their larger competitors enjoy.17 Thus it appears that profitability increases as a business gains share relative to competitors in its served markeL For example, BMW holds only a small share of the total car market, but it earns high profits because it is a high-share company in its luxury car segment. It achieved this high share in its served market because il does other things right, such as producing high quality, giving good service and holding down its costs.
Competitive Strategies 1
Improving Productivity
Market productivity means squeezing more profits out of the same volume of sales. The size advantage of market leaders can give them lower costs than the competition- Size itself is not sufficient to achieve low costs because this could be achieved by owning unrelated activities that impose extra costs, as Marketing Highlight 12.3 explains. The lowest costs often occur when a market leader, such as McDonald's, keeps its business simple. The buying and selling of subsidiary businesses often reflects businesses trying to gain strength by simplifying their activities. This explains the sales of Orangina, a soft-drinks business, to CocaCola for Ffr5 billion by the French drinks company Pernod Ricard. By this transaction Coca-Cola gains in efficiency and scale by having more soft drinks to sell globally. With the proceeds from the sale, Pernod Rieard aims to add more wines and spirits brands to its existing range, which includes Wild Turkey, Dubonnet, Havana Club and Jacob's Creek.18 IMPROVE COSTS. To remain competitive, market leaders fight continually to reduce costs. After facing difficulties in the early 1990s Mercedes used all the classical means of cutting costs: 8 Reduce capital cost. Firms reduce their capital cost by doing less or doing things quickly. Just-in-time (JIT) methods mean firms have less capital tied up in raw materials, work in progress on the shop floor and finished goods. By accelerating its product development Mercedes will increase its market responsiveness and accumulated development costs. It will also reduce capital costs by doing less itself. Component manufacturers will provide more preassemblcd parts and a joint venture with a Romanian company will make car-interior parts. Reduce fixed costs. Mercedes acknowledges that Japan's manufacturers have an average 35 per cent cost advantage over their German competitors. Japan's lower capital cost and longer working hours explain only 10 per cent of the difference. Mercedes responded by cutting 18,000 jobs in 1993 to save DM5 billion. Forced redundancies are almost unknown in Germany, so the deduction is made by the 'social measures' of the non-replacement of people, early retirement and retraining. . Reduce variable cost. The company is sticking to its unconventional production methods where 10-15 'group workers' operate round cradles holding body shells. Meanwhile its new car plant at Rastatt will pioneer methods of 'lean production', logistics, total quality and workforce management. Other plants will adopt the proven methods. Car design will also change. It will be quicker, and future cars will be designed to a target price, rather than making the best car and then pricing it. The lessons will be passed on to Mercedes' suppliers. In future they will work closer to Mercedes' research and development. The aim is to reduce the number of parts fitted at the works. The company is also changing its 'Made in Germany' policy, to produce where labour costs are lower. In 1996 it launched a US-made sports utility vehicle. CHANGE PRODUCT MIX. The aim here is to sell more high-margin vehicles. Mercedes' current range does not cover luxury off-road vehicles, people movers or small sports cars - all growth areas commanding premium prices- Moving into these markets will reduce Mercedes' dependence on its 'lower-priced' models. While other tour operators were faced with discounting wars, Airtours profits rose by 29 per cent in 1997 thanks to its product mix moving away from the United
526 • Chapter 12 Creating Competitive Advantages Kingdom's low-cost package holidays to concentrate on less price-sensitive customers in Canada. California and Scandinavian countries. ADD VALUE. Mercedes makes and sells cars, but its customers want prestige and transport. Mercedes can add value by offering long-terra service contracts, leasing deals or other financial packages that make buying easier and less risky for customers. In the past Mercedes sold basic models that are poorly equipped by modern standards. Customers then paid extra to have a car custom made for them with the features they wanted. The 'Made in Germany' label that has served the company for so long is no longer enough to command a premium price. The aim is to maintain a price premium by the brand's strength and superior quality across a broad range of products. This contrasts with the Japanese, whose wellequipped luxury Lexus (Toyota), Acura (Honda) and Innniti (Nissan) brands have tightly targeted small ranges.
• Defending its Position While trying to expand total market size, the leading firm must also constantly protect its current business against competitor attacks. Shell must constantly guard against BP, Exxon and Elf Aquitane; Gillette against Bic; Kodak against Fuji; Boeing against Airbus; Nestle against BSN. What can the market leader do to protect its position? First, it must prevent or fix weaknesses that provide opportunities for competitors. It needs to keep its costs down and its prices in line with the value that the customers see in the brand. The leader should 'plug holes' so that competitors do not jump in. The best defence is a good offence and the best response is continuous innovation. The leader refuses to be content with the way things are and leads the industry in new products, customer services, distribution effectiveness and cost cutting. It keeps increasing its competitive effectiveness and value to customers. It takes the offensive, sets the pace and exploits competitors' weaknesses. Increased competition in recent years has sparked management's interest in models of military warfare. Leader companies can protect their market positions with competitive strategies patterned after successful military defence strategies. Figure 12.5 shows six defence strategies that a market leader can use.19 POSITION DEFEN'CE. The most basie defence is a position defence in which a company holds on to its position by building fortifications around its markets. Simply defending one's current position or products rarely works. Henry Ford tried it with his Model T and brought an enviably healthy Ford Motor Company to the brink of financial ruin. Even lasting brands such as Coca-Cola and Nescafe cannot supply all future growth and profitability for their companies. These brands must be improved and adapted to changing conditions and new brands developed. Coca-Cola today, in spite of being the world leader in soft drinks, is aggressively extending its beverage lines and has diversified into desalinization equipment and plastics. FLANKING DEFENCE. When trying to hold its overall position, the market leader should watch its weaker flanks closely. Smart competitors will normally attack the company's weaknesses. Thus the Japanese successfully entered the US small car market because local car makers left a gaping hole in that submarket. Using a flanking defence, the company carefully cheeks its flanks and protects the more vulnerable ones. In this way Nesde's Nescafe and Gold Blend have the support of flanking brands Blend 37, Alta Rica and Cap Colombie. By acquiring Rover,
Competitive Strategies • 527
Figure 12.5
Defence strategies
BMW obtained access to small cars and cross-country vehicles and so defended its flanks in two growing sectors of the luxury car market where it was not active. PRE-EMPTIVE DEFENCE. The leader can be proactive and launch a preemptive defence, striking competitors before they can move against the company. A pre-emptive defence assumes that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Thus, when threatened in the mid-1980s by the impending entry of Japanese manufacturers into the US market, Cummins Engine slashed its prices by almost a third to save its no. 1 position in the $2 billion heavy-duty truck engine market. Today, Cummins claims a commanding 50 per cent market share in North America and not a single US-built tractor-trailer truck contains a Japanese engine.2' COUNTEKOFFENSIVE DEFENCE. When attacked, despite its flanking or pre-emptive efforts, a market leader may have to be reactive and launch a counteroffensive defence. When Fuji attacked Kodak in the film market, Kodak counterattacked by dramatically increasing its promotion and introducing several innovative new film products. Mars' attack on the ice-cream market, using its brand extensions of Mars Bars, Snickers, Bounty and so on, created a new product class of ice-confectionery. Unilever's Walls ice-cream division, which is market leader in parts of Europe, had difficulty countering this because it had no confectionery brands to use in that way. It overcame the problem by developing brand extensions of Cadbury's products, a competitor of Mars, which has no ice-cream interests. In other parts of Europe, Nestle is leader in the ice-cream market. With its strength in both confectionery and ice cream, it was able to launch brand extensions to match Mars. Sometimes companies hold off for a while before countering. This may seem a dangerous game of 'wait and see', but there are often good reasons for not jumping in immediately. By waiting the company can understand more fully the competitor's attack and perhaps find a gap through which to launch a successful counteroffcnsive.
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MOBILE DEFENCE. In a mobile defence a company is proactive in aggressively defending a current market position. The leader stretches to new markets that can serve as future bases for defence and attack. Through marker: broadening, the company shifts its focus from the current product to the broader underlying consumer need. For example, Armstrong Cork redefined its focus from 'floor covering' to 'decorative room covering' (including walls and ceilings) and expanded into related businesses balanced for growth and defence. Market diversification into unrelated industries is the other alternative for generating 'strategic depth'. When the tobacco companies like British American Tobacco (BAT) and Philip Morris faced growing curbs on cigarette smoking, they moved quickly into new consumer products industries, Philip Morris bought up General Foods and Kraft to become the world's largest consumer packaged goods company and BAT Industries is now one of Europe's largest firms. CONTRACTION DEFENCE. Large companies sometimes find they can no longer defend all of their positions, since their resources are spread too thin and competitors are nibbling away on several fronts. So they react with a contracting defence (or strategic withdrawal). The company gives up weaker positions and concentrates its resources on stronger ones. During the 1970s, many companies diversified wildly and spread themselves too thin. In the slow-growth 1980s, ITT, Paribas, Suez, ENI, Gulf & Western, Quaker, Storehouse and dozens of other companies pruned their portfolios to concentrate resources on products and businesses in their core industries. These companies now serve fewer markets, hut serve them much better. The British motorcycle industry showed an extreme case of a contracting defence. Norton, Triumph, BSA, etc. once dominated the world motorcycle market. First challenged by the small bikes made by Honda, Yamaha and others, they contracted into making medium-sized (250 cc) to super-bikes. When the Japanese made 250 cc machines, the British market retreated from entry-level machines to concentrate on larger ones. Eventually only Triumph and Norton
Competitive Strategies • 529 super-bikes remained as small, out-of-date specialist manufacturers facing the Japanese giants, and they did not last long. A successful contracting defence must be a retreat into a position of strength.
Market-Challenger Strategics Firms that are second, third or lower in an industry are sometimes quite large, such as Colgate, Fiat, Toyota, Roche, Sandoz, HSBC (Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corp.), Carlsberg and PepsiCo. These runner-up firms can adopt one of two competitive strategies: they can attack the leader arid other competitors in an aggressive hid for more market share (market challengers): or they can play along with competitors and not rock the boat (market followers). We now look at competitive strategies for market challengers.
• Defining the Strategic Objective and the Competitor A market challenger must first define its strategic objective. Most market challengers seek to increase their profitability by increasing their market shares. The strategic objective chosen depends on who the competitor is. In most cases, the company can choose which competitors it will challenge. The challenger can attack the market leader - a high-risk but potentially high-gain strategy that makes good sense it' the leader is not serving the market well. To succeed with such an attack, a company must have some sustainable competitive advantage over the leader — a cost advantage leading to lower prices or the ability to provide better value at a premium price. In the construction
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Reebok confront their major competitor -with a unique cushioning system. Photography: Buggy G. Ripheatl equipment industry, Komatsu successfully challenged Caterpillar by offering the same quality at much lower prices, Glaxo became Europe's leading drug company by aggressively marketing Zantae, its anti-ulcer drug.21 The challenger can avoid the leader and instead attack firms its size, or smaller local and regional firms. Many of these firms are underfinanced and will not be serving their customers well. Several of the large beer companies grew to their present size not by attacking large competitors, but by gobbling up small local or regional competitors. Thus the challenger's strategic objective depends cm which competitor it chooses to attack. If the company goes after the market leader, its objective may be to wrest a certain market share. Bic knows that it cannot topple Gillette in the razor market - it simply wants a larger share. Or the challenger's goal might he to take over market leadership. Compaq entered the persona! computer market late, as a challenger, but quickly became the market leader. If the company goes after a small local company, its objective may be to put that company out of business, The important point remains: the company must choose its opponents carefully and have a clearly defined and attainable objective.
Choosing an Attack Strategy How can the market challenger best attack the chosen competitor and achieve its strategic objectives? Figure 12.6 shows five possible attack strategies. FRONTAL ATTACK. In a full frontal attack, the challenger matches the competitor's product, advertising, price and distribution efforts. It attacks the competitor's strengths rather than its weaknesses. The outcome depends on who has the greater strength and endurance. Even great size and strength may nor be enough to challenge a firmly entrenched and resourceful competitor successfully,
Competitive Strategies • 531
Figure 12.6
Attack strategies
Unilever has twice the world-wide sales of P & G and five times the sales of Colgate-Palmolive, hut its American subsidiary trails P & G by a wide margin in the United States. Unilever launched a full frontal assault against P & G in the detergent market while Unilever's Wisk was already the leading liquid detergent. In quick succession, it added a barrage of new products - Sunlight dishwashing detergent, Snuggle fabric softener, Surf laundry powder - and hacked them with aggressive promotion and distribution efforts, P & G spent heavily to defend its brands and held on to most of its business. It counterattacked with Liquid Tide, which came from nowhere in just 17 months to run neck-and-neek with Wisk. Unilever did gain market share, but most of it came from smaller competitors.22 If the market challenger has fewer resources than the competitor, a frontal attack makes little sense. FLANKING ATTACK. Rather than attacking head on, the challenger can launch a flanking attack. The competitor often concentrates its resources to protect its strongest positions, but it usually has some weaker flanks. By attacking these weak spot.s, the challenger can concentrate its strength against the competitor's weakness. Flank attacks make good sense when the company has fewer resources than the competitor. When Airbus Industries started making airliners it was up against Boeing, a company that dominates the industry. Lockheed and McDonnell Douglas had once challenged Boeing as plane makers, but Lockheed had withdrawn from the industry and McDonnell Douglas was reduced to making derivatives of its old aircraft. Airbus's first move was to develop the A300 with range and payload performance different from Boeing's established 727, 737 and 747 range. Another flanking strategy is to find gaps that are not being filled by the industry's products, fill them and develop them into strong segments. European and Japanese car makers do not try to compete with American car makers by
532 • Chapter 12 Creating Competitive Advantages producing large, flashy, gas-guzzling contraptions. Instead they recognized an unserved consumer segment that wanted small, fuel-efficient cars and moved to fill this hole. To their satisfaction and Detroit's surprise, the segment grew to be a large part of die market. ENCIRCLEMENT ATTACK. An eneirclement attack involves attacking from all directions, so that the competitor must protect its front, sides and rear at the same time. The encirclement strategy makes sense when the challenger has superior resources and believes that it can break the competitor's hold on the market quickly. An example is Seiko's attack on the watch market. For several years, Seiko has been gaining distribution in every big watch outlet and overwhelming competitors with its variety of constantly changing models. In most markets Seiko offers about 400 models, but its marketing strength is backed by the 2,300 models it makes and sells worldwide. BYPASS ATTACK. A bypass attack is an indirect strategy. The challenger bypasses the competitor and targets easier markets. The bypass can involve diversifying into unrelated products, moving into new geographic markets or leapfrogging into new technologies to replace existing products. Technological leapfrogging is a bypass strategy used often in high-technology industries. Instead of copying the competitor's product and mounting a costly frontal attack, the challenger patiently develops the next technology. When satisfied with its superiority, it launches an attack where it has an advantage. Thus Minolta toppled Canon from die lead in the 35-min SLR camera market when it introduced its technologically advanced auto-focusing Maxxum camera. Canon's market share dropped towards 20 per cent, while Minolta's zoomed passed 30 per cent. It took Canon three years to introduce a matching technology.' G L'ERRILLA ATTAC K. A guerrilla attack is another option available to market challengers, especially smaller or poorly financed ones: When entrepreneur Freddie Laker frontally attacked the established airlines (then BOAC and TWA) by offering cheap transatlantic flights, they fought back and bankrupted him. Now TWA has all but disappeared and British Airways is facing Virgin Atlantic run by a much wilier entrepreneur. Richard Branson. He makes guerrilla attacks on his much larger competitors. In these attacks the agile challenger typically makes small, periodic attacks to harass and demoralize the competitor, hoping eventually to establish permanent footholds. It might use selective price cuts, novel products, executive raids, intense promotional outbursts or assorted legal actions. Virgin has been successful so far and taken 22 per cent of the London to New York market. It is also expanding quickly using franchising, an approach new to the airline industry.34 Normally, guerrilla actions are by smaller firms against larger ones. The smaller firms need to be aware, however, that continuous guerrilla campaigns can be expensive and must eventually be followed by a stronger attack if the challenger wishes to 'beat' the competitor.
Market-Follower Strategics Not all runner-up companies will challenge the market leader. The effort to draw away the leader's customers is never taken lightly by the leader. If the challenger's
Competitive Strategies
lure is lower prices, improved service or additional product features, the leader can quickly match these to diffuse the attack. The leader probably has more staying power in an all-out battle. A hard fight might leave both firms worse off and this means the challenger must think twice before attacking. Many firms therefore prefer to follow rather than attack the leader. A follower can gain many advantages. The market leader often bears the huge expenses involved with developing new products and markets, expanding distribution channels, and informing and educating the market. The reward for all this work and risk is normally market leadership. The market follower, on the other hand, can learn from the leader's experience and copy or improve on the leader's products and marketing programmes, usually at a much lower investment. Although the follower will probably not overtake the leader, it can often be as profitable.-5 In some industries - such as steel, fertilizers and chemicals - opportunities for differentiation are low, service quality is often comparable and price sensitivity runs high. Price wars can erupt at any time. Companies in these industries avoid short-run grabs for market share because the strategy only provokes retaliation. Most firms decide against stealing each other's customers. Instead they present similar offers to buyers, usually by copying the leader. Market shares show a high stability. This is not to say that market followers are without strategies. A market follower must know how to hold current customers and win a fair share of new ones. Each follower tries to bring distinctive advantages to its target market - location, services, financing. The follower is a primary target of attack by challengers. Therefore, the market follower must keep its manufacturing costs low and its product quality and services high. It must also enter new markets as they appear. Following is not the same as being passive or a carbon copy of the leader. The follower has to define a growth path, but one that does not create competitive retaliation. The market-follower firms fall into one of three broad types. The cloner closely copies the leader's products, distribution, advertising and other marketing moves. It originates nothing - it simply attempts to live off the market leader's investments. IBM's demise started after outsourcing (286 chips from Intel and the MS-DOS operating system from Microsoft) and open architecture allowed lowcost market entrants to copy its PCs. Dutch flower growers, who dominate the international flower trade, are facing intense competition from growers in Israel, Kenya and Zimbabwe. They can grow exactly what the Dutch do but, unlike tht: North Europeans, have no big heating bills, cheap labour and unregulated use of fertilizers. The flood of foreign stems has knocked 40 per cent off rose prices and Dutch growers are increasingly resigned to losing the rose and carnation trade.21' The imitator copies some things from the leader, but maintains some differentiation with packaging, advertising, pricing and other factors. The leader does not mind the imitator as long as the imitator does not attack aggressively. The imitator may even help the leader avoid the charges of monopoly. Today's imitators are often retailers making look-alike own brands. The British Producers and Brand Owners Group (BPOGJ was formed in response to own brands aping the market leaders too closely. Sainsbury's highly publicized launch of Classic Cola precipitated BPOd's formation and resulted in the retailer backing off. Other confrontations include Sainsbury's Full Roast (based on Nescafe) and Tesco's Unbelievable low fat spread (close to Van den Bergh's I Can't Believe It's Not Butter).27
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Finally, the adapter builds on the leader's products and marketing programmes, often improving them. The adapter may choose to sell to different markets to avoid direct confrontation with the leader. Many IBM PC look alikes did this - Atnstrad was one of the earliest selling its ready and running machines through conventional electrical goods retailers. Js'ow Dell and dan Technologies combine direct selling with excellent customer support. Often the adapter grows into -A future challenger, as many Japanese firms have done after adapting and improving products developed elsewhere.
Market-Nicher Strategies Almost every industry includes firms that specialize in serving market niches. Instead of pursuing the whole market or even large segments of the market, these firms target segments within segments or niches. This is particularly true of smaller firms because of their limited resources. Smaller divisions of larger firms also pursue niching strategies. EG & G is an example of a large company that profitably employs ;a niching strategy: EG & (i is a $1.4 billion industrial equipment and components company consisting of over 175 distinct and independent business units, many with less than $10 million in sales in markets worth $25 million. Many EG & G business units have their own R & D, manufacturing and sales force operations. The company is currently the market or technical leader in 80 per cent of its niche markets. More astonishing, EG & G
Competitive Strategies • 535
ranked second in earnings per share and first in profitability in the Fortxine 1000. EG & G illustrates how niche marketing may pay larger dividends than mass marketing. Tlie main point is that firms with low shares of the total market can be highly profitable through clever niching (sec Marketing Highlight 12.4). One study of highly successful mid-size companies found that, in almost all cases, these companies niched within a larger market rather than going after the whole market.2S Two of 'Europe's most respected companies',2'1 De La Rue and Reuters, both fall into this category. De La Rue's niche is banknote printing and payment handling systems, while Reuters provides news and financial information, usually screen-based. Why is niching profitable? The main reason is that the market nicher ends up knowing the target customer group so well that it meets their needs better than other firms which casually sell to this niche. As a result, the nieher can charge a substantial mark-up over costs because of the added value. Whereas the mass marketer achieves high volume, the nicher achieves high margins. Nichers try to find one or more market niches that are safe and profitable. An ideal market niche is big enough to be profitable and has growth potential. It is one that the firm can serve effectively. Perhaps most importantly, the niche is of little interest to large competitors. The firm can build the skills and customer goodwill to defend itself against an attacking big competitor as the niche grows ami becomes more attractive. The key idea in nichemanship is specialization. The firm has to specialize along market, customer, product or marketing-mix lines. Here are several specialist roles open to a market nicher: • End-use specialist. The firm specializes in serving one type of end-use customer. For example, Reuters provides financial information and news to professionals and Moss Bros' strength is in clothes hire.
53d • Chapter 12 Creating Competitive Advantages
Concentrated Marketing: Two Nice Niches Jo Brand is a size-challenged comedienne whose act often includes two themes; her size and her love for cakes. The following two niche companies are for her. One is old and one is new. They are Betty's Cafe Tea Rooms and 1647, the clothes shops owned bycomedienne Dawn French.
Marketing Highlight
curd tarts and fat rascals. Here Betty's keeps close to its Swiss roots; the bakers and confectioners train at Richemont College, Lucerne, Like many clever companies, Betty's is a multiple nieher. It has diversified into other businesses close to its original business. At each of its Cafe Tea Rooms it also has a retail outlet selling expensive gift-oriented confectioner;', which suits their location in tourist towns. It also has a mail-order business selling cakes, chocolates and speciality teas and coffees by post. Finally, it markets Yorkshire Tea, a brand sold and positioned nationally as a traditional Yorkshire 'cuppa'. As part of the promotion for this brand, the tea is supplied, free of charge, to all northern branches of the Women's Institute, a long-established organization of middle-aged, middle-class gentlewomen.
12.4
Betty's Cafe Tea Room There are only four Betty's Cafe Tea Rooms and one Taylor's Tea Room, all in Yorkshire, but they serve 2 million cups of tea a year - it is Che British tea room. They do not advertise, yet year round people queue tor a chance to taste their exquisitely expensive tea, coffee and cakes. Once inside, the guests find themselves in a quiet room where a pianist plays light classical music. The rooms are simple, but rich with the atmosphere of times past. Serving are formally dressed waiters, or waitresses wearing black skirt, starched white blouse and apron - the embodiment of Victorian servants. Betty's is proud of its heritage and quietly boasts of the York Betty's being built by 'the same team of craftsmen who were responsible for the ornate decor of the luxury liner, the Queen Mary .. During the last war it was the favourite haunt of the thousands of airmen and servicemen stationed around York. Many left there a permanent reminder of their visit by inscribing their names onto the mirror which now hangs in the Oak Room.' The first Betty's was opened in Harrogate in 1919 by Fredrick Belrnorit, a Swiss confectioner who travelled to London to make his fortune. He visited the Yorkshire Dales, liked it, stayed and started Betty's. His timing was as good as his patisserie. Harrogate was booming and Betty's was just about the only place an unehaperoned woman could go. Then and now Betty's succeeds because of the quality of what it serves and its employees. The range and quality of cakes are such that customers need a description of what each is. The pastries range from exotic Amadeus tort and Venetian festival cake to local Yorkshire
Dawn French Fashions A study of the contours of 5,000 women just after the Second World War links Betty's golden age to Dawn French's fashions. The study's results gave tht: British Standard Sizes - 12,14, 16 and so on that have pained many people ever since. The sizes worked well in the 1950s when food rationing had just ended and people walked a lot, but not now. A recent study of women's contours by J.D. Williams shows that things have changed. For years the company has been selling mailorder clothes to women with a fuller figure who were unable to get suitable clothes from highstreet stores. Nigel Green, marketing director of J.D. Williams' Classic Combinations catalogue business, explains; Today's woman enjoys a far inore selfindulgent lifestyle and is not only taller, but has a noticeably bigger and lower bust, an appreciably larger waist and rib cage, a more rounded tummy, a larger and flatter bottom and far fuller upper arms. And while her hip size may still be ,56 inches [1 in = 2.54 cm], the standard British figure [the original size 12] is now more likely to be 38-28-36 than
Competitive Strategies • 537
36-24-36 .. The old-fashioned dress sizes meant that women in this country have learned to live with ill-fitting clothes; blouses that gape, waistbands that cut and skirts that ride up. Nigel Green believes these new sizes will give his niche company an extra USP (unique selling proposition). Other moves are afoot in the high street. 'Women are no longer prepared to put their lives on hold until they can starve themselves down to size 14,' says Christina Bounce, group marketing and merchandising director for Country Casuals Holdings. She goes on: 'They are generally feeling happier about their own size, even when it doesn't conform to fashion stereotypes.' C & A and D.H. Evans, the Outsize Shop, have long served the outsize market, but the emerging market shows that women no longer feel the need to don masks before entering the premises.
Dawn French's shops, 1647, sell high fashions — not just upsized 12s, cover-all T-shirts and leggings - designed for the amply proportioned. Few in the trade believe the claim implicit in the shop name that 47 per cent of women are over size 16, but the huge suecess of niche retailers aiming at the market shows where the future lies. Within a year of start-up Ann Harvey shops, for sizes 16 to 26, grew from the initial 20 stand-alone stores to 38, and 2 concessions and a further 12 are scheduled. 'There is correlation between age and increased size and obesity,' says Verdict's GHve Vaughan. So, as the middle-aged market grows in number, affluence and girth, the outsize market is a good niche to target. But as Joan Miller, training co-ordinator of Betty's Cafe Tea Rooms, says: 'If everyone round here decides to get health conscious, we're in real trouble.' Sources: Nicholas Lander, 'British tea and torte', Financial TVmes (4-5 June 1994), p. XI; Virginia Matthews, 'Oversized and over here', Marketing Week (2,1 September 1994), p. 25.
Vertical-level specialist The firm specializes at some level of the production-distribution cycle. For example, the Dutch-based Anglo-Italian company, EVC, is Europe's leading manufacturer of polyvhiylchloride (PVC), while Country Homes' niche is as an intermediary between owners of country cottages and people who want to hire them for holidays. Customer-si.se specialist The firm concentrates on selling to cither small, medium or large customers. Many nichers specialize in serving small customers neglected by the large companies, Fuji gained its initial success in the photocopying market by specializing on small firms neglected by Xerox. Many regional advertising agencies also specialize in serving medium-sized clients. Specific -customer specialist The firm limits its selling to one or a few large customers. There are many firms like this in the motor industry: for example, Unipart devotes most of its time to BMV/Kover. Geographical specialist. The firm sells only in a certain locality, region or area of the world. Most retail banks stay within their national boundaries. Two odd exceptions to this rule are the European HSBC and Standard & Charter, whose main interest is south-east Asia. Product or feature specialist. The firm specializes in producing a certain product, product line or product feature - Rolls-Royce is the only supplier of tilt-thrust jet engines. Quality-price specialist. The firm operates at the low or high end of the market. For example, Hewlett-Packard specializes in the high-quality, highprice end of the hand-calculator market, while Tring International sells very cheap CDs.
538 • Chapter 1.2 Creating Competitive Advantages •
multiple niching Adopting a strategy of having several independent offerings that appeal to several different sv&segntents of consumer.
Service specialist The firm offers one or more services not available from other firms: for example, NASA's ability to recover and repair satellites.
Niching carries a very significant risk, in that the market niche may dry up or he attacked. Porsche was hit by both of these threats when the demand for luxury cars declined in the early 1990s and Honda, Toyota and Mazda attacked the sports car market. On ;j different scale, innovation and intense competition between multinationals and social trends eventually killed off Pollards Cornish Ice Cream./10 Its niche was selling high-fat dairy ice cream - an estimated 100 calories per cone - to the declining number of tourists in the south-west of England. The danger of the disappearing niche is why many companies use multiple moiling. By developing two or more niches, the company increases its chances of survival. Most of the wealth of successful healthcare companies comes from their each having products in a few niches that they dominate. For instance, Sweden's Gambio concentrates on'renal care, cardiovascular surgery, intensive care and anaesthesia, blood compound technology and preventive health services. The need for multiple niching is shown by SmithKline Beecham's Tagamet sales dropping 76 per cent in the quarter that it lost patent cover in the United States.31
Balancing Customer and Competitor Orientations
competitor-centred company A company whose moves arc mainly based on competitors' actions and reactions; it spends most of its time tracking competitors'moves and market shares and trying to find strategies to counter them. customs r-ct; n treie,s- (21 February 1997), p. 21. For more discussion on defence and attack strategies, sec Philip Roller, Marketing Management-Analysis, planning, implementation, untl control (KngJcwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), oh. 14. See Lois Therrien, 'Mr Rust Belt', BtiKitiess Week (17 October 1988), pp. 72-80. Nee Michael K. Porter, 'How to attack the industry leader', Fortune (19 April 1985), pp. 153-66; 'Life after Zantac', The Rconomist (3 July 1993), p. fi5 See Andrew C. Brown, 'Unilever fights back in the US', fortune (26 May 1986), pp. 32-8. See Otis Port, 'Canon finally challenges Minolta's mighty Maxxum', fortune (2 March 1987), pp. 89-90. Virgin Atlantic still on course'. The Economist (22 January 1994), pp. 63-4. Sec Daniel W. llainus, Rajan Chandran and Avvind Parlihe, 'Winning by being first to market .. or last?', Journal tif Consumer Marketing (Winter 1989), pp, 63-9. Michael Griffin, 'Imports cut into Dutch flower power', Financial Times (5 August 1994), p. 22. Claire Murphy, 'Brand owners plot fresh assault', Marketing Week (3 June 1994), p. 7. Donald K. Clifford and Richard E. Cavanagh, The Winning Performance; ! I trw America's high- and midsize growth companies succeed (New York: Bantam, 1985). 'Europe's most respected companies'. Financial Times (27 June 1994), pp. 8-9. Tim Burt, 'Tourists lose their taste for Pollards Cornish Ice Cream', Financial Times (25 October 1994), p. 24. Robert Taylor, 'Gamble: looking forward to a healthy future', financial 'Krnes: FT500 (10 February 1993), p. 17; Daniel Green, 'Tagamet's US sales fall 76% in quarter', Financial 'fimes (19 October 1994), p. 25. See John C. Narver and Stanley F. Slater, 'The effect of a market orientation on business profitability', .Internal of Marketiiig (October 1990), pp. 20-35.
Case 12: BMW
Case 12 BMW: Putting the 'Brrrrunr Back in Brum THE 63-YEAR-OLD WIDOW scorns expensive jewellery, drinks mineral water and tea, gives no parties and rarely attends them. Outside her family she has fev friends and. like many other middle-class German women, she takes her car when she goes shopping. However, unlike most shoppers, her car is a RMW525. She also has a Mercedes 500 and a chauffeur-driven 12-cylinder 7 series BMW. She is Mrs Joanna Brauhn, one of Europe's richest people, whose DM7 billion business interests stretch from baby food to batteries. She also owns Bfiyerische Motorenwerke (Bavarian Motor Works), better known as BMW. After a deeade of success, BMW faced problems in the early 1990s. Between 1992 and 1993 European car sales dropped 16 per cent and BMW did worse than average. Its archrival, Mercedes, and the Japanese car makers had also lost, but not as badly as BMW. Only one of the world's car makers had gained over that period - Rover's sales grew by 9 per cent in 1993. Under Attack BMW was squeezed on several fronts. Recessions in Europe, Japan and the United States brought car sales down in all the world's major markets. Like Audi. Mercedes and Porsche, BMW's sales were also hit by Japan's aggressive and successful attack on the US luxury car market. In less than a year after launch, Honda's Acura range became America's top-selling luxury ear, knocking Mercedes off the top spot. Toyota soon followed with its Lexus, a car that quickly became the benchmark for luxury and quality. As Japan's luxury car sales grew in the United States, German sales declined: BMW's US sales fell from 97,000 in 1986 to 57,000 in 1991. BMW could not follow two leading trends in the ear market - the shift towards smaller cars, and to large off-the-road vehicles. In Europe, the number of wealthy working women was increasing rapidly and these were opting to buy fashionable super-minis or small sporty cars, not BMW's executive saloons. In addition, senior executives who had once bought 5 or 7 series BMWs increasingly opted for Range Rovers, Toyota Land Cruisers or other bulky giants. Volvo was similarly hit as wealthy parents opted for an off-the-road vehicle rather than a Volvo estate to transport their children. Honda Honda caused BMW particular problems. Japan's third largest car maker, behind Toyota and Niss.-m, Honda positioned itself close to BMW. Even before the launch of Acura. Honda had an excellent reputation for quality, reliability and being sporty. Honda cars also came well equipped and had many advanced features, BMW, like Mercedes, could have sophisticated accessories, such as microscopic air filters and parking aids, but these were
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544 • Gliaptcr 12 Creating Competitive Advantages rarely fitted to cars unless customers paid extra for them. Even radios are optional extras on most RMWs. Unlike BMW, Honda also rmide small sports cars and the Civic, an attractive small family car One motoring correspondent said: 'It' Mercedes ever made a small car, it would he like the Civic/ In the early 1990s, Europe's 13 million cars a year industry had 2 million cars a year excess capacity, and too many manufacturers making too many models. This did not stop Toyota, Nissan and Honda building further new factories, mostly in England. By doing this the Japanese avoided their own country's high labour costs, gained access to the United Kingdom's flexible and inexpensive workforce, and avoided the European Union's Japanese car import quotas. The strategy proved successful. The workers quickly learned to produce cars of Japanese quality. Japanese management practices (just-in-time, total quality, continuous improvement, etc.) blended easily with the British tradition of improvization. In its Sunderland plant, well away from the traditional ear-making area round Coventry and Birmingham (Rrimi), Nissan achieved production rates equal to those in Japan - 80 cars per worker per year. This compares with a European average of 45 ears per worker per year achieved only after productivity gains in the early 1990s. Being smaller than Toyota and Nissan, Honda initially chose a joint venture with the UK's Rover as an inexpensive way of entering the European market. Honda took a 20 per cent stake in Rover, the other 80 per cent being owned by British Aerospace (BAe). In exchange BAc took a 20 per cent share of Honda (UK). Exhibit 12.1 shows the extent of the deal.
EXHIBIT 12.1 THE HONDA-ROVER DEAL AGREEMENT
CONTENT
Equity holding
Honda owns 20 per cent of Rover Cars. Rover owns 20 per cent of Honda (UK). Licensing Honda car designs for Rover 200, 400, 600 and 800. Honda component designs, such as gearbox for 2-litre Rover engine. Honda supplies production equipment and technology to Rover for its 200, 400 and 600 series cars. Component supplies Each sells the other about £400 million worth of car parts and components a year: for example, Honda sells 1.6, 2.0, 2.3 and 2.7-litre engines to Rover; Honda sells Rover fascias for 600 series; and Rover sells body panels for UK-made Honda Accords. Vehicle sales Rover makes Honda Concertos in Birmingham and supplies Land Rover Discoveries for sale as Honda Crossroads in Japan. Rover, by any other Name The Rover group in 1990 was the product of governments, not enterprise. The company has its origins in the early days of the motor industry, the first Rover being a bieycle made by the Starley company in 1884. In 1938 Lord Nuffield combined the Riley, Wolseley, Morris and MG companies. Austin and Vanden Plas joined them in 1952 to form the British Motor Corporation (BMC). Then, with the addition of Jaguar and Daimler in 1966, the group became British Motor Holdings (BMII).
Case 12: BMW • 545
Successive Labour governments encouraged these and further mergers. Prime Minister Harold Wilson explained that the policy was 'to encourage the UK's chief strategic industry to become more internationally competitive'. The idea was to merge companies, and then to select the best managers to run them. The clear failure of the earlier mergers did not deter the government, which in 1968 encouraged the formation of British I-eyland (BL) by combining BMII with Rover, Triumph and Leyland. Leyland's Donald Stokes took over the group, which made over 1 million cars a year, had 40 per cent of the UK car market, 30 factories, 13 brands and dozens of models. Donald Stokes, whose reputation eame from selling buses and trucks worldwide, was out of his depth running this hugely complex and underinvested company. Under his directorship BL deteriorated. It faced increasing competition from European rivals and started losing its traditional overseas markets. The company became synonymous with low quality, strikes and trade unions resistant to the reform of working practices. In 1973 the oil supply crisis sent the company reeling. Even the successful truck and bus division struggled after being starved of cash to subsidize the loss-making ear business. Finally, in 1975, the Labour government nationalized BL and brought in Michael Edwards, a South African, as chief executive. He persuaded first the Labour government, and then the Conservative government that succeeded it, to give BL money to revamp its range. To help do this, he established the company's first links with Honda. BL continued losing money, but Michael Edwards succeeded - where Donald Stokes had failed - in breaking the power of the trade unions. Under the premiership of Margaret Thatcher he threatened the unions with the ultimate sanction closing the company. While state-owned, BL absorbed £2 billion in government aid and accumulated a further £2.6 billion losses - £200 worth of aid for each person in the United Kingdom. Margaret Thatcher refused to give BL any more. The sale of Jaguar provided some funds, but by 1986 Margaret Thatcher had lost patience and called in Graham Day, a Canadian, to sort out the company. He had earlier 'rationalized' British Shipbuilding. Taking BMW as a model, Graham Day shifted the product range up-market and, with the help of Honda, rationalized products and introduced new work practices. In cut after cut, some of the great names of the car industry disappeared: Van den Plas, Rjley, Austin-Healey, Wolseley, Triumph, Morris and Austin. BL was sliced and sold off: trucks went to Daf of the Netherlands; buses went eventually to Sweden's Volvo; the spares operation, Unipart, went to a group of financial institutions; and finally Rover, the renamed rump of the company, went to BAe. Both Ford and GM tried to buy parts of Rover, particularly the famous Land Rover division. However, fearing the political backlash, the sales fell through. Now Thatcher's government could boast that the deal kept Rover 'British' by putting it safely in the hands of the UK's biggest engineering group - an aeroplane maker. Rover: (rmng Japanese The link with Honda saved Rover from extinction. It provided product and manufacturing knowledge that Rover lacked. Rover gained first-hand experience of Japan's world-beating manufacturing ways and drank deeply from the pool of experience. Licensing Honda's car designs allowed Rover's 2,001) engineering and development staff to concentrate upon their own new Kseries engine and off-the-road vehicle design. One of the most valuable lessons Rover learned from Honda was how to break down barriers between departments to ease production and product
346
Chapter 12 Creating Comjietitive Advantages development. It was taught how to bring product to market more quickly and with fewer mistakes in product development. Product development was done at production plants rather than at a centralized location. For the new Rover 600, the project leader was based at Cowley, where the car would be made. lie chose a team from around the company who worked out of one room while shaping the car. In this way Rover developed its small-capacity multivalvc K-series engine from scratch. Its 4- and 6-eylinder developments could power almost any of Rover's future cars. Land Rover had made civilian and military off-road vehicles tor years, but changed direction in 1970 with its Range Rover - a luxury vehicle with polished wood trim and the capability to cross fields, streams, deserts and jungles. Designed for the United Kingdom's wealthy conn try-living classes, the 'Hollywood Jeep' appeared wherever there was money. The Range Rover defined a new product class. It became a fashion statement - the only vehicle to have been exhibited in the Louvre in Paris as a work of art. People who never got their shoes or car dirty liked the Range Rover's classic design and the way it allowed its drivers to stare over and look down on other road users. Other car makers followed Rover's lead and helped Europe's off-theroad sports/utility vehicle market grow from 50,000 in 1980 to 300,000 in 1990. Rover's new-found product development skills allowed it to defend Land Rover's strong position at the top of the market. Its all-new Rover Discovery model went into production in a record-breaking 21 months. Launched in 1989, it helped Land Rover's .sales to grow from 46,700 in 1988 to 73,527 in 1993, during a period in which other car makers suffered declining sales. Priced between £17,500 and £26,800 the Discovery was not cheap, but it allowed Land Rover to move its new-generation, 200 kph, £31,950 to £43,950 Range Rover up-market to compete with top-of-therange BMW. Mercedes, Jaguar ant! Lexus. Honda saved Rover - but at a price. The sumo held the recovering Rover in a constricting embrace. Honda protected Rover, but stopped the car business making profits. Rover had to pay Honda handsomely for the floor-plans and engines it needed for its larger models. It also paid a royalty to Honda for each jointly developed car Rover sold. The technology agreement barred Rover from selling Honda-based models in markets that Honda wanted for itself, such as the United States. Rover needed a better deal with Honda, but its weak position and Honda's intractability left BAe in a jam. 'We were involved in some kind of Japanese poker game,' said Richard Evans, chief executive of BAe, Enter BMW The play of Richard Evans' last poker card sent Honda reeling. On 29 January 1994, BAe sold its 80 per cent stake in Rover to RMW. With one bold move BMW's share of the European car market doubled to 6.4 per cent, it became market leader in the off-the-road market, and it gained a range of small cars, a low-cost manufacturing base and access to Honda's production know-how. Simultaneously, it: wrecked Honda's European strategy. The speed of Honda's undoing left its managers in Tokyo bewildered and resentful. 'Now our partner has been acquired by our competitor we must start to reassess our entire operation in Europe,' said Kiyoshi Ikemi, councillor to Honda's president, Nobuhiko Kawamoto. 'Mr Kawamoto has made it quite clear that he has no intention of collaborating with BMW in the UK. We did not want to collaborate with Rover through BMW. Such collaboration was not called for - we had nothing to gain from it.' According to industryobservers, the collapse of Honda's European alliance could not have
Case J2: BMW
EXHIBIT 12.2 RANGES TYPE Basic Super Mini Small family Saloon Large family Saloon Executive Luxury Exotic Sports Off-the-road
HONDA
ROVER
BMW
Civic Concerto
Mini Metro 200' 400s Maestro Montego
300
Accord Legend
600a 800' MG Defender Discover;' Freelander Range Rover
500 700 800
23
ROLLS-ROYCE
All
NOTE: 'Based on Honda.
happened at a worse time for the company. Management attention was on the very depressed Japanese market and the United States, where Honda were losing share to the revitalized American car makers. Honda had offered to buy a 47.5 per cent share in Rover, but, explained Mr Kawamoto, 'We did not want to make Rover Japanese. We wanted to increase Rover's Roverness. We wanted it to be more British - that was the way the collaboration would work best.' BMW's campaign on Honda's seemingly impregnable position had started in September 1993. It had identified Rover as a target that would extend its car range and achieve economies of scale in distribution, component sourcing and R & D. BMW's initial offer to BAe was repulsed because of Rover's relationship with Honda. Despite the rebuff, BMW continued scrutinizing Rover. Wolfgang Reitzle, BMW's R & D director, quietly visited Rover's plants and, back in Germany, test drove the entire fleet (see Exhibit 12.2). Hagan Ltideritz, BMW's director of corporate planning, says BMW delivered a letter to Honda's Mr Kawamoto, stating its interest in Rover. He got no response. Mr Kawamoto's councillor, Mr Ikemi, denies any direct approach, saying Honda only had indirect hints of RMWs interest. 'We weren't informed properly until Friday last week [the day before the BMW deal],' he protested. After the deal, the mood among BMW's management was different to Honda's. Mr Volker Doppelfeld, BMW's finance director, explained that they had taken the shortest and cheapest route to fulfil their long-term aim of expanding RMW's core car business into new market segments. The long route would have meant a step-by-step move from BMW's up-market saloon base. In the event, the DM2,000 million paid for Rover is what BMW would normally spend on developing a single new model. Included in the price, he explained, were 17 brands, including Land Rover and Range Rover, which came equipped with 'the most interesting, the best, and the longest heritage in off-the-road vehicles'. Since the takeover the Mini has been relaunched as an up-market small car, the MG has been reborn, sales of the Ereelander — Land Rover's baby off-the-road — have soared to 40 per cent above expectations
547
548
•
Chapter 12
Creating Competitive Advantages
and BMW has announced its higgest ever foreign investment to make its workhorse Defender in Brazil. BMW has also signed a deal with another British company, Rolls-Royce, After beating off competition from Mercedes, BMW will supply V8 and VI2 engines for Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars. Soon Mrs Joanna Brauhn will have an even bigger choice of cars when she goes for a spin.
QUESTIONS 1. Why did combining a large number of car makers to form British Leyland not help the United Kingdom's 'chief strategic industry'? 2. Given Rover's much wider range, why was it not as successful as BMW, which had a much smaller range of vehicles to sell? 3. Attacking the IIS luxury car market forced Honda, Toyota and Nissan to move from making car.s equivalent to American inexpensive 'compacts' to large expensive luxury Aeura, Infintti and Lexus models. Why do you think they attacked these segments rather than the mass market for 'regular'-sized ears in the United States? 4. Why did the Japanese attack the luxury car market in the United States rather than taking the battle to Europe? 5. What enabled Land Rover to hold its position in the market even though the Rover group could not? Why did Rover manage to increase sales when the rest of the world's car industry was in decline? 6. If BAe wanted to get rid of Rover, and Honda did not want it, what good is it to BMW? What do you think explains Honda's reaction to the supposed contact with BMW? Would you recommend Honda to pull the plug on its deal with Rover? SOURCES: Simon Davies, 'BAe flics away from Rover with a sack full of cash', fr'inttnuial Times (1 February 1994), p. I; Christopher Parkes, 'A quick route into new market segments', Financial Times (1 February 1994), p. 22; Paul Abrahams and John Griffiths, 'Honda's European strategy wrecked', Financial IVintis (1 February 1994), p. 22; Kenneth Gooding, 'Rich British ancestry fails to provide independent future', Financial Times (1 February 1994), p. 23; 'Europe's car makers: then there were seven', The Economist (5 February 1994), pp. 19-24; Andrew Lorenz and Matthew Lynn, 'BMW drives in', Kiaiday Times: Business Focus (6 February 1994), pp. 2-3; Peter Miller, 'One careful lady owner', Sunday Times: iVeups Review (6 February' 1994), p. 1; B. John Griffiths, 'Capable of producing from the ground up'. Financial TJmes (22 February 1994), p. 24; Tony Lewin, 'Rebirth of the Range Rover', The European (30 Septembef-6 October 1994), p. 23; 'Ecstasy meets Mercedes', The Economist (17 December 1994), p. 72; John Griffiths. 'Rolls-Royce keep hold of the steering wheel', Financial 'nines (20 December 1994), p. 8; Richard Wolffe, 'Demand creates 400 .jobs at Land Rover', Financial Times (27 January I99K), p. 8.
•
Overview Case Three
Cadbury's TimeOut: Choc Around the Clock Damien McLoughlin* and Benoit Heilbrunn
Introduction Cadbury's TimeOut is the most successful product ever developed and launched by Cadbury in Ireland. The development was by the management of Gadbury Ireland, at their plant in Coolock, Dublin. The product's success came from a combination of technological advance, strong domestic and international market orientation, and original positioning strategy at the time of launch. Gadbury started manufacturing in Ireland in the 1930s, at a time when the protectionist policies of the Irish government effectively forbade the importation of chocolate to Ireland. Ireland and the United Kingdom's entry to the EEC in 1973 made them an open market for confectionery. The effect on the industry in Ireland was that several indigenous firms such as Lemons (hard-boiled sweets} and Urnies (chocolates) disappeared from the marketplace. The implication for Cadbury Ireland was the need to reshape its manufacturing so that it was positioned to benefit from economies of scale internationally rather than simply domestically. Cadbury Ireland us a Partner in Cadbury-Schweppes International Within the Cadbury-Schweppes group, Gadbury Ireland identified its particular strengths and competences, and set out to develop in these areas. The company identified three technologies in which it felt that it had, or could develop, global expertise. These three areas were: 1. Extrusion. This involves putting one form of confectionery inside another: for example, Cad bury's Eclairs wrapped chocolate in caramel; the Moro bar is a centre of chocolate paste with biscuit encased in caramel and covered in chocolate. 2. Flake chocolate manufacture. Cadbury's Flake is a light, crumbly, melt-inthe-mouth product positioned in the indulgence section of the confectionery market. The Flake brand is very well established and its advertising is legendary. The brand has been leveraged to include confectionery, catering *Marketing Ciroup, DCUBS. Duhlin City University, Dublin, Ireland. ** Department of Marketing, Graduate School of Business, UCD, Blaokrock, Co. Dublin, Ireland.
I
550 • O-vvrview Case Three- Cadbury's TtmcOut
3.
and ice-cream usage. However, the Flake recipe and process provide unique product properties, which were the key for future development. Wafer making and baking. Wafer is an important part of a number of strong-selling products in Ireland, in particular the 'pink Snack brand'. Gadbury Ireland is the only Cadbury-Schweppes affiliate in the northern hemisphere to manufacture the wafer product.
Building on Core Competences at Cadbury Ireland From the mid-1970s Cadburv Ireland developed centres of excellence around these core competences. The strong product development process in Cadburv Ireland produced products such as Cadbury's Chomp, Moro, TimeOut and Twirl. Twirl is a two-finger casual chocolate snack based on flake technology. These developments led to a doubling of Cadburv Ireland's throughput and allowed it to develop its brand successfully on both the domestic and international markets. The PerajMnitive of Cadbury Ireland on the Marketplace Cadbiiry sees itself as a 'range house'. This describes a company that provides the consumer with a complete range of options in ever)' segment of the market. In addition, all Cadburv products bear the distinctive Cadburv logo. The core product of the Cadbury group is Dairy Milk chocolate, which is used in its products and which is also marketed under the Dairy Milk brand name. This chocolate, which uses fresh Irish milk, has been the basis of success in a great number of segments, Cadbury defines segments on the basis of how customers buy rather than on how a product is made. For example, it identifies products as serving impulse markets, take-home markets or gift usage. This has allowed Cadbury Ireland management to identify a significant consumption pattern whereby the take-borne segment is increasing its share of the confectionery market. This trend is driven by supermarket purchases of chocolate. In addition, they had noticed a certain overlap in the marketplace where brands that were traditionally seen as bars - for example, Twix and KitKat - were extending their franchise into the biscuit market. The main snack brands in Ireland (see Exhibit 3.1) are as follows: •
KitKat. KitKat was first sold in Ireland in ll>37. It has become one of the most popular brands on the market with in the region of I£l 1 million sales in 1992. KitKat had initiated the move into the biscuit market with the memorable advert debating 'it's a biscuit . . . it's a bar'. This ad showed the product being used in different ways and suggested that it had multiple uses. Nestle-Rowntree, the owners of the brand, maintained this position by heavy advertising and maintaining the price of the product at a below market par level. Usually 2-4p below its main competitors, KitKat is also available in bar and snack-size formats. Twix. Owned by the Mars corporation, Twix was launched in Ireland in 1968. The effort was made to develop a position for the product in the snack marker with the advertising slogan, 'Whenever there's a snack gap, Twix fits.' Its packaging format, in a flow wrapper, however, also allowed it to fit into the bar/impulse market segment. The success of Twix has been attributed to its good value-for-money position and the heavy advertising support that it has traditionally received. Total brand sales in 1992 were estimated to he in the region of IS6-7 million. Twix was among the first products to be sold in the snack and fun-size formats. Jacob's Club Milk. The oldest brand on the market, Jacob's Chib Milk lias been sold in Ireland since the 1900s. It is sold singly and in family six-pack formats. The Club Milk acts as a flagship for a range of different-flavoured.
Case Three: Cadbury's TimeOut • 551 chocolate-covered Club biscuits. For example, the Club bar is available in Club Orange and Club Mint formats. The position of Club Milk in the snack market is firmly achieved with the advertising message, 'If you're going to have a cuppa, have a Club.' • Cadbury's Snack. Since its launch in the 1960s, the Cadbury's Snack brand has grown to lead the chocolate snack market. This domination is achieved through grocery sales, but also includes the important catering market. The Snack comes in three formats, differentiated by the colour of the packaging. The 'yellow' snack comprises a chocolate-covered shortcake biscuit. The 'purple' snack is a sandwich-filled biscuit heavily covered with thick milk chocolate. The third option is the 'pink' snack, which comprises three fingers of chocolatecovered wafer. Cadbury's Snack is sold in a variety of formats incorporating single bar, multipaeks and treat size. Its combined sales from grocery, newsagent and catering outlets were in excess of Igll million in 1992.
EXHIBIT 3.1 THE MAIN SNACK BRANDS IN IRELAND, 1992 KitKat Twix Jacobs Club Milk Cadbury's Snack
MANUFACTURER
LAUNCHED
SALEK (!£M)
Nestle-Rowntree Mars Jacobs Cadbury
1937 1968 1900s 1960s
11.0 6.5
5.0
11.0
The Snauk Market The snack is a particularly prominent product market in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It is essentially a lifestyle market linked to a destructured approach to food. Snack products are most successful in those countries in which eating habits arc not centred on two or three main meals. In these countries the consumption of food may be scattered around various occasions during the day. Thus the 11 a.m. and 4 p.m. snack breaks are usual practice in Irish and English lifestyles. These breaks generally consist of a cup of tea/coffee together with fruit, a chocolate bar or a cake. Internationally, this snack habit is linked to the grazing phenomenon, which is representative of the slow but steady change in cultural habits concerning eating (destruction of family meals and less time devoted to meals) and accounts for the growth of the snack market in other European countries. That the Irish are accomplished 'snackers' is evidenced by their large confectionery market with annual sales in 1992 of over IS24II million (see Exhibit
EXHIBIT 3.2 THE CONFECTIONERY MARKET IN IRELAND Estimated market value at RSP fern) Annual growth
rate (%)
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
210
216
228
245
242
3.0
5.0
3.0
2.9
SOURCE: Nestle-Rt>wntrec
Break-Time in Ireland Ireland is also a great tea-drinking nation. A survey carried out by Nielsen in 1993 in Ireland showed that 20 of the top 100 grocery brands are liquid consumables.
552 • Overview Cose Three: Cadbury's TimeOut However, leading tea brands in Ireland are positioned on value for money rather than taste. This means that tea might be viewed as a depersonalized drink. Therefore there is considerable need for a beverage complement with strong personality in order to personalize break-times. In trying to meet this need, Cadbury was faced with what was a mature marketplace. Irish consumption of confectionery is the highest in Europe (see Exhibit 3.3). Chocolate consumption alone is 8.3 kg per annum per capita. This figure is matched only by their British neighbours. Tlie Concept of TimeOut Based on these trends in the marketplace and Cadbury's core technological competences, the management of Cadbury Ireland saw the opportunity to bring confectionery values to the biscuit market and biscuit values to the confectionery market. In this sense TimeOut set out specifically to target the bridge-brand position and satisfy all uses from mainstream confectionery luxury to straight beverage accompaniment, but with values firmly rooted in the break market. It also had to compete with existing competitors in this market, particularly KitKat and Twix, both brands that had also targeted the bridge-brand position for the future. TimeOut therefore 'institutionalized' the coexistence of three elements: the need for a break during the day; tea or coffee as a liquid consumable; and the need for a snack to accompany that drink. This can be paraphrased as 'Wherever you are, whatever you are doing, when it's that time (i.e. your time for a break) it's TiraeOi.it time.'
The Positioning Mix for' the Launch of TimeOut Product
TimeOut stems from a technological advance at Cadbury Ireland that allowed it to layer flake on to wafer. The competitive advantage of this product lies in the unique blend of flake sandwiched between two wafers and covered in dairy milk chocolate. In product terms, TimeOut bridges both the snack and bar markets as the Flake ingredient was sufficiently biscuity to be a suitable accompaniment to a beverage break. On the one hand its biscuit constituency made it an ideal snack, while its Fluke content made it a suitable bar of chocolate in its own right. Tlte Branding Ingredients: Brand Name, Logo and Identity Colours Many names were proposed for the new product, including 'Switch' and 'Ultra'. However, it was discovered that using a name indicating the timing and situation in which the bar should be consumed greatly enhanced the consumer's understanding of what the product was designed for. The TiraeOut name was proposed and accepted as it more clearly communicated the desired position as the snack accompaniment. These brand-name objectives were supported by the use of a
EXHIBIT 3.3 EU CONSUMPTION OP CONFECTIONERY (KG PER CAPITA)
]IRELAND IRELAND Chocolate Biscuits Ice cream Total
8.3
17.9 8.0 34.2
NETHEREU UK UK GKEECS GREECE BELGIUM BELGIUM DENMARK DENMARK GERMANY GERMANY FRANCE FRANCE LANDS LANDS ITALY SPAIN I'ORTl'GAI, AVERAGE 8.3
13.0 7.1 28.4
2.4
17.9 5.3 25.6
7.0
5.2 9.8 22.0
7.2
5.5 9.1 21.8
5.9
3.1 7.8 16.8
5.2 6.5 4.7 16.4
6.0 2.8 4.5 13.3
1,3
5.9 6.1
13.3
2.3
5.2 3.8 11.3
0.5
4.6 1.8 6.9
4.8
6.6 6.0 17.4
Overview Case Three: Cadbury's TiineOut • 553 cloek (suggesting that any time is suitable for TimeOut) and a mug (which reinforced the beverage break accompaniment role). The new brand needed a strong visual identity system to reinforce the other positioning elements. Hence the use of bold primary colours on the packaging to attract attention and create competitive distinction. The two main colours used were blue, considered the main identity colour, and red, which is used to write the brand name. The brand name is surrounded by yellow; this blue/red/yellow association is the colour scheme most easily associated with light biscuity bars. Blue also has a symbolic connotation and is considered as a peaceful and restful colour. The choice of colour is interesting because the market is dominated by darker brand colours such as black/brown (Mars) and gold (Twix). Pricing Consumer knowledge of price in the snack market, given its habitual nature, is high. However, the standard-size chocolate bars are only slightly differentiated in terms of price. Given the power of retailers, the producer often has little discretion in the determination of price. TimeOut was launched at a priee of 28p, while a standard bar was priced at 30p. Packaging Configuration Packaging was particularly important in positioning TimeOut as a bridge brand. Most brands establish themselves in standard format initially and then expand to different formats. TimeOut, however, was required to meet the needs of a number of groups and so came in a variety of formats from the start: •
Standard. The standard product to be sold in newsagents, workplace restaurants and coffee shops. The format is two full-size fingers in a flow wrapper. In newsagents or supermarkets, TimeOut is placed with other Cadbury brands. t 5-pack. The five-pack format was five TimeOut fingers in a convenience pack to allow the product to be bought in bulk from supermarkets. It is positioned with the multipacks for other confectionery products. • Breakpack. The breakpack consisted of six shorter twin-finger packs individually wrapped. This is also sold in supermarkets and is intended for the home snaek market. In supermarkets the breakpack would be put on shelf space with the biscuit range. t Treat-size. The treat-size format is intended to meet the demands of the children's treat/party market. The treat-size format was 14 full-size, individually wrapped TimeOut fingers. These are mainly distributed through supermarkets. The shelf position for the treat size is with the treat and funsize formats of other confectionery1 products. Advertising and Promotion At its initial launch in early 1992 TimeOut was supported by a complete range of advertising and promotion. Heavy TV and radio advertising emphasized the 'TimeOut at any time' theme. Promotions included balloon releases at several centres around the country, a variety of street activities involving a national radio station and using branded characters, and participation at the annual St Patrick's Day parade in Dublin. Free samples were generously distributed at street activities and during in-store promotions. TimeOut has also made effective and largescale use of poster advertising, TimeOut used both family brand promotions and brand alliance promotions in its initial positioning. An example of the family brand promotions was one with
554
Overview Case Three; Cadbiuy's TimeOut Lyons tea, the largest selling brand of tea in Ireland. The promotion gave customers a free bar of TimeOut with every standard box of tea. This achieved two goals. First, given the market share of Lyons, it faeilitated trial of the product. Secondly, it was an opportunity to nail down the position of TimeOut as a beverage accompaniment. The overall promotional message was one of a new, friendly, modern, fun and young, beverage-break accompaniment that was suitable for use at any time. The Success of TimeOut Six to eight months after the launch of TimeOut, a national trade maga/ine eompleted a brand evaluation (Checkout, July-August 1993). Primary research eompieted by an independent research company highlighted some extraordinary results. User Profile The user profile of the brand demonstrated a widespread acceptance. The vast majority of adults and all children had used the brand at some stage since ite introduction (see Exhibit 3.4). Women, a prime market for chocolate consumption, represented over 60 per cent of TimeOut consumers. Users were drawn from all areas of Ireland, but were particularly strong in urban areas. This user profile was assisted by a high conversion ratio for both adults and children (see Exhibit 3.5).
EXHIBIT 3.4 BRAND ACCEPTANCE AMONG ADULTS AND CHILDREN (%) ADULTS (15 YEARS +)
CHILDREN (11-14 YEARS)
68
97
Ever used Used once/twice Occasional user Regular user
23
22
14
13 41 43
SOURCE: Lansdownu Market Research.
EXHIBIT 3.5 GADBURY'S TIMEOUT CONVERSION RATIO (%) ADULTS CHILDREN (15 YEARS +)
Aware Awareness to trial Trial to repeat user Lost con -sum ens
86 69 61 7
(11-14 VBARS)
100 97 87 1
SOURCE: Lansdowne Market Research.
Attitudes Towards the Brand As might be expected, given the high levels of trial achieved for the brand, consumer attitudes towards the brand were very positive (see Exhibit 3.6). This is particularly evidenced by the positive appeal that the brand had for both adults and children. Among the target group of 11—25-year-olds there was virtually nu criticism of the brand. This sort of consumer support should allow TimeOut to build on its initial success even after its large-scale media support is reduced.
Overview Case Three: Cadbwy's TimeOut • 555
EXHIBIT 3.6 CADBURY'S TIMEOUT BRAND APPEAL (%}
Positive Neutral Negative
ADULTS (15 YEARS +)
CHILDREN (11-14 YEARS)
66 27 7
86 14 1
QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4.
What criteria did Gadbury Ireland use in developing TimeOut? What role did they play in the positioning strategy of TimeOut? What are the risks of the 'bridge-brand' position? Which marketing-mix variables were most important in positioning TimeOut? 5. How did the positioning and marketing strategies of its main competitor influence TimeOut's positioning? 6. What are the cultural factors that account for the success of TimeOut? Could TimeOut be successful in other European countries?
I
'A hamburger by any other name costs twice, as much.' EVAN ESAU (MODERN MARKETER)
Part Introduction IN PART FOUR WE LOOK at the first component in the marketing mix - the product. Designing good products that customers want to buy is a challenging task. Customers do not buy mere products. They seek product benefits and are often willing to pay more for a brand that genuinely solves their problems. Chapter 13 explores how marketers ean satisfy customer needs by adding value to the basic
CHAPTER 13
product; it also shows the complexity arising in product, branding and packaging
Brands, Products, Packaging and Services
decisions, and how various forces in the environment pose tough challenges for marketers heading towards the twenty-first century. Markets do not stand still. Companies must adapt their current offerings or create new ones in response to changing customer needs, or to take advantage of
CHAPTER 14 Product Development and Life-Cycle Strategies
new marketing and technological opportunities. Chapter 14 looks at how to develop and commercialize new products. Importantly, after launch, marketing managers must carefully manage the new product over its lifetime to get the best
CHAPTER 15 Marketing Services
out of their new-product effort. While Chapters 13 and 14 deal with products, Chapter 15 looks more specifically at intangible products or services. It examines the unique characteristics of services and how organizations adapt their approach when marketing them.
557
PART OVERVIEW CASE: Maud: Getting it Right is No Child's Play
Brands, Products, Packaging and Services CHAPTER OBJECTIVES • • • • • •
After reading this chapter, you should he able to: Define the terra product including the core, actual and augmented product. Explain the main classifications of consumer and industrial products. Outline the range of individual product decisions that marketers make. Explain the purpose of branding and identify the chief branding decisions. Explain the decisions that companies make when developing product lines and mixes. List the considerations that marketers face in making international product decisions.
Preview Case Revlon REVLON SELLS COSMETICS, TOILETRIES AMD fragrances to consumers around the world. Revlon is the no. 1 firm in the popular-price segment of the fragrance market. In one sense. Revlon's perfumes are no more than careful mixtures of oils and chemicals that have nice scents. Rut Revlon knows that when it sells perfume, it sells much more than fragrant fluids - it sells what the fragrances can do for the women who use them. 558
Preview Case: Revlon
Perfume is actually shipped from the fragrance houses in big, ugly drums. Although a £100-an-ounce perfume may cost no more than £7 to produce, to perfume consumers the product is much more than a few pounds' worth of ingredients and a pleasing smell. Many things beyond the ingredients and scent add to a perfume's allure. In fact, the scent may be the last element developed. Revlon first researches women's feelings about themselves and their relationships with others. It then develops and tests new perfume concepts that match women's changing values, desires and lifestyles. When Revlon finds a promising new concept, it creates and names a scent to fit the idea, Revlon's research in the early 1970s showed that women were feeling more competitive with men and that they were strivi7ig to find individual identities. For this woman of the 1970s, Revlon created Charlie, the first of the 'lifestyle' perfumes. Thousands of women adopted Charlie as a bold statement of independence, and it quickly became the world's best-selling perfume. In the late 1970s, Revlon research showed a shift in women's attitudes: 'women had made the equality point, which Charlie addressed. Now women were hungering for an expression of femininity.' They now wanted perfumes that were subtle rather than shocking. Thus Revlon subtly shifted Charlie's
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560 • Chapter 13 Brands, Products, Packaging and Services position. The perfume still made its 'independent lifestyle' statement, but with an added tinge of 'femininity and romance', Revlon also launched a perfume for the woman of the 1980s, Jontue, which was positioned on a theme of romance, Revlon continues to refine Charlie's position, now targeting the woman of the 1990s who is 'able to do it all, but smart enough to know what she wants to do'. After almost 20 years, aided by continuous but subtle repositioning, Charlie remains the best-selling mass-market perfume. A perfume's name is an important product attribute. Revlon uses such brand names as Charlie, Fleurs de Jontue, Ciara, Scoundrel, Guess and Unforgettable to create images that support each perfume's positioning. Competitors offer perfumes with such names as Obsession, Passion, Uninhibited, Opium, Joy, White Linen and Eternity. These names suggest that the perfumes will do something more than just make you smell better. Oscar de la Renta's Ruffles perfume began as a name, one chosen because it created images of whimsy, youth, glamour and femininity - all well suited to the target market of young, stylish women. Only later was a scent selected to go with the product's name and positioning. Revlon must also carefully package its perfumes. To consumers, the bottle and package are the most tangible symbols of the perfume and its image. Bottles must feel comfortable, be easy to handle and look impressive when displayed in stores. Most important, they must support the perfume's concept and image. So when a woman buys perfume, she buys much, much more than simply fragrant fluids. The perfume's image, its promises, its scent, its name and package, the company that makes it and the stores that sell it all become a part of the total perfume product. When Revlon sells perfume, it sells more than the tangible product. It sells lifestyle, self-expression and exclusivity; achievement, success and status; femininity, romance, passion and fantasy; memories, hopes and dreams.1
QUESTIONS 1. What is the core product that Revlou sells? 2. What is the tangible product that the company yells? 3. What is the augmented product? 4. A perfume's name is a central product attrihute. How should Revlon go about deciding and selecting an appropriate brand name for its perfumes? 5. What are the key branding decisions that Revlon marketing managers have to make? 6.
Revlon markets its perfumes worldwide. What major considerations does the firm face in determining global product decisions?
Introduction Clearly, perfume is more than just perfume when Revlon sells it. Revlon's great success in the rough-and-tumble fragrance world comes from developing an
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innovative product concept. An effective product concept is the first step in marketing-mix planning. This chapter begins with a deceptively simple question: Wiiat is a product? After answering this question, we look at ways to classify products in consumer and business markets and look for links between types of product and types of marketing strategy. Next, we see that each product requires several decisions that go beyond product design. These decisions involve branding, packaging, labelling and product-support services. We move from decisions about individual products to decisions about building product tines and product mixes. Finally, we address some complex considerations in international product decisions.
What is a Product? A pair of Adidas trainers, a Volvo truck, a Nokia mobile telephone, a Vidal Sassoon haircut, an Oasis concert, a EuroDisney vacation, advice from a solicitor and tax preparation services are all products. We define a product as anything that is offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption and that might satisfy a want or need. Products include more than just tangible goods. Broadly defined, products include physical objects, services, persons, places, organizations, ideas or mixes of these entities. Services are products that consist of activities, benefits or satisfactions that are offered for sale, such as haircuts, tax preparation and home repairs. Services are essentially intangible and do not result in the ownership of anything. (Because of the importance of services in the world economy, we will look at them more closely in Chapter 15.) Product planners need to think about the product on three levels. The most basic level is the core product, which addresses the question: What is the buyer really buying? As Figure 13.1 illustrates, the core product stands at the centre of the total product. It consists of the problem-solving services or core benefits that consumers seek when they buy a product. A woman buying lipstick buys more Elian lip colour. Charles Rcvson of Revlon saw this early: 'In the factory, we make cosmetics; in the store, we sell hope.' Theodore Levitt has pointed out that buyers 'do not buy quarter-inch drills; they buy qnartcr-ineh holes'. Thus when designing products, marketers must first define the core of benefits that the product will provide to consumers. The product planner must next build an actual product around the core product. Actual products may have as many as five characteristics: a quality level, features, styling, a brand name and packaging. For example, Sony's Handycam camcorder is an actual product. Its name, parts, styling, features, packaging and other attributes have all been combined carefully to deliver the core benefit - a convenient, high-quality way to capture important moments. Finally, the product planner must build an augmented product around the core and actual products by offering additional consumer services and benefits. Sony must offer more than a camcorder. It must provide consumers with a complete solution to their picture-taking problems. Thus when consumers buy a Sony Ilandycam, Sony and its dealers might also give buyers a warranty on parts and workmanship, free lessons on how to use the camcorder, quick repair serviees when needed and a freephone number to call if they have problems or questions. To the consumer, all of these augmentations become an important part of the total product. Therefore, a product is more than a simple set of tangible features. Consumers tend to see products as complex bundles of benefits that satisfy their
product Anything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a -want or need. It includes physical objects, services, persons, places, organizations and ideas. services Activities, benefits or satisfactions that are offered for sate. core product The problem-solving services or core benefits thai consumers are really buying when they obtain a product. actual product A product's parts, quality level, features, design, brand name, packaging and other attributes that combine to deliver core product benefits. augmented product Additional consumer services and benefits built around the core and actual products.
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Figure 13.1
Three levels of product
needs. When developing products, marketers must first identify the core consumer needs that the product will satisfy, then design the actual product and finally find ways to augment it in order to create the bundle of benefits that will best satisfy consumers. Today, most competition takes place at the product augmentation level. Successful companies add benefits to their offers that will not only satisfy, hut also delighc the customer. For instance, hotel guests find chocolates on the pillow or a howl of fruit or a VCR with optional videotapes. The company is saying 'we want to treat you in a special way'. However, each augmentation costs the company money, and the marketer has to ask whether customers will pay enough to cover the extra cost. Moreover, augmented benefits soon become expected benefits: hotel guests now expect cable television, trays of toiletries and other amenities in their rooms. This means that competitors must search for still more features and benefits to differentiate their offers.
Product Classifications n on-durable product A consumer product iliat is niii-miilly consumed in one or a few uses. durable product A consumer product thac is usually used over an extended period of time and [hat normally survives many uses.
Before we examine individual product decisions, let us explain several productclassification schemes. Products can be classified according to their durability and tangibility Non-durable products are goods that are normally consumed quickly and used on one or a few usage occasions, such as beer, soap and food products. Durable products are products used over an extended period of time and normally survive for many years. Examples are refrigerators, cars and furniture. Services are activities, benefits and satisfactions offered for sale which are essentially intangible and do not result in the ownership of anything. Examples include haircuts, holiday packages and banking services. Marketers have also divided products and services into two broad classes based on the types of customer that use them - consumer products and industrial products.
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Marketing considerations for consumers products TYPE OF CONSUMER PRODUCT
MARKETING CONSIDERATOKS
Customer buying behaviour
Price Distribution
CONVENIENCE
SHOPPING
SPECIALITY
UNSOUGHT
Frequent purchase, little planning, little comparison or shopping effort, low customer involvement
Less frequent purchase, much planning and shopping effort, comparison of brands on price, quality, style Higher price Selective distribution in fewer outlets
Strong brand preference and loyalty, special purchase effort, little comparison of brands, low price sensitivity High price Exclusive distribution in onlv one or a few outlets per market area More carefully targeted promotion by both producer and resellers
Little product awareness, knowledge (or if aware, little or even negative interest)
Low price Widespread distribution, convenient locations
Promotion
Mass promotion by the producer
Advertising and personal selling by both producer and resellers
Examples
Toothpaste, magazines, laundry detergent
Major appliances televisions, furniture, clothing
Luxury goods, such as Rolex watches or fine crystal
Varies Varies
Aggressive advertising and personal selling by producer and resellers Life insurance, Red Cross blood donations
Consumer Products Consumer products are tho.se bought by final consumers for personal consumption. Marketers usually classify these goods based on consumer shopping habits. Consumer products include convenience products, shopping produces, speciality products and unsought products. These products differ in the way consumers buy them, so they differ in how they are marketed (see Table 13,1).2 Convenience products are consumer goods and services that the consumer usually buys frequently, immediately and with a minimum of comparison and buying effort. They are usually low priced and widely available. Examples are soap, sweets and newspapers. Convenience goods ean be divided further into miples, impulse goods and emergency goods. Staples are goods that consumers buy on a regular basis, such as milk, toothpaste or bread. Impulse goods are purchased with little planning or search effort. These goods are normally available in many places because consumers seldom seek them out. Thus chocolate bars and magazines are placed next to checkout counters because shoppers may not otherwise think of buying them. Emergency
consumer product A product bought by final consumers for personal consumption. Convenience product A consumer product that the customer usually buys frcq uently, immediately, and with a minimum of comparison and buying effort.
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Figure 13.2
Classification of industrial goods
shopping product A consumer produce that The customer, in the process of selection and purchase, aha racteristica lly compares -with others on such bases as suitability, quality, price and style. speciality product A consumer product «!t(/i unique characteristics or brand identification for 'which a significant group of buyers is 'willing to make a special purchase effort.
unsought product A consumer product that the consumer either does not know about or knows about but does not normally think of buying.
products are purchased when a need is urgent - umbrellas during a rainstorm, or boots and shovels during the year's first snowstorm. Manufacturers of emergency goods will place them in many outlets to make them readily available when the customer needs them. Shopping products are less frequently purchased and consumers .spend considerable time and effort gathering information and comparing alternative brands carefully on suitability, quality, price and style. Examples of shopping products are furniture, clothing, used cars and major household appliances. Shopping products can be divided into homogeneous and heterogeneous goods. The buyer sees homogeneous shopping products, such as major appliances (e.g., cookers, fridges), as similar in quality but different enough in price to justify shopping comparisons. The seller has to 'talk price' to the buyer. However, when a consumer is shopping for heterogeneous products such as clothing and furniture, product features are often more important than price. If the buyer wants a new suit, the cut, fit and look are likely to be more important than small price differences. Therefore a seller of heterogeneous shopping products must carry a wide assortment to satisfy individual tastes and have well-trained salespeople to give information and advice to customers. Speciality products arc consumer goods with unique characteristics or brand identification for which a significant group of buyers is willing to make a special purchase effort. Examples are specific brands and types of car, high-priced home entertainment systems, photographic equipment and luxury goods. A jukebox, for example, is a speciality good because buyers are usually willing to travel greal distances to buy one. Buyers normally do not compare speciality goods. They invest only the time needed to reach dealers carrying the wanted products. Although these dealers do not need convenient locations, they must still let buyers know where to find them. Unsought products are consumer goods that the consumer either does not know about or knows about but does not normally think of buying. Most major innovations are unsought until the consumer becomes aware of them through advertising. Other examples of known but unsought goods are life insurance, home security systems and blood donations to the Red Cross. By their very nature, unsought goods require a lot of advertising, personal selling and other marketing efforts. Some of the most advanced personal selling methods have developed out of the challenge of selling such goods.
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Industrial Products Industrial products are those bought for further processing or for use in conducting a business. Thus the distinction between a consumer product and an industrial product is based on the purpose for which the product is purchased. If a consumer buys a lawn mower for home use, the lawn mower is a consumer product. If the same consumer buys the same lawn mower tor use in a landscaping business, the lawn mower is an industrial product. There are three groups of industrial product: materials and parts, capital items and supplies and services (see Figure 13.2). Materials and parts are industrial goods that become a part of the buyer's product, through further processing or as components. They include raw materials and manufactured materials and parts. Rmv materials include farm products (wheat, cotton, livestock, fruits, vegetables) and natural products (fish, timber, crude petroleum, iron ore). Farm products are supplied by many small producers, which turn them over to marketing intermediaries that process ;ind sell them. Natural products usually have great bulk and low unit value, and require a lot of transportation to move them from producer to user. They are supplied by fewer and larger producers, which tend to market them directly to industrial users. Manufactured materials and pans include component materials (iron, yarn, cement, wires) and component parts (small motors, tyres, castings). Component materials are usually processed further - for example, pig iron is made into steel, and yarn is woven into cloth. Component parts enter die finished product complete with no further change in form, as when Electrolux puts small motors into its vacuum cleaners and Volvo adds tvres to its automobiles. Most manufactured
industrial product A product bought by individuals and orga nixa tionsforfu rther processing or for use in conducting a business.
materials and parts Industrial products that enter the manufacturer's product completely; including raw materials and manufactured materials and parts.
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capital items Industrial goods that partly enter the finished product, including installations and accessory equipment.
supplies and services Industrial products that do not enter [hefinished product a! all.
materials and parts are sold directly to industrial users. Price and service are the most significant marketing factors, and branding and advertising tend to be less important. Capital items are industrial products that help in the buyers' production or operations. They include installations and accessory equipment. Installations consist of buildings (factories, offices) and fixed equipment (generators, drill presses, large computers, lifts). Because installations are substantial purchases, they are usually bought directly from the producer after a long decision period. Accessory equipment includes portable factory equipment and tools (hand tools, lift trucks) and office equipment (i'ax machines, desks). These products do not become part of the finished product. They have a shorter life than installations and simply aid in the production process. Most sellers of accessory1 equipment use intermediaries because the market is spread out geographically, the buyers are numerous and the orders are small. Supplies and services are industrial products that do not enter the finished product at all. Supplies include operating supplies (lubricants, coal, computer paper, pencils) and repair and maintenance items (paint, nails, brooms). Supplies are the convenience goods of the industrial field because they are usually purchased with a minimum of effort or comparison. Business services include maintenance and repair services (window cleaning, computer repair) and business advisory services (legal, management consulting, advertising). These services are usually supplied under contract. Maintenance services are often provided by small producers, and repair services are often available from the manufacturers of the original equipment.
Individual Product Decisions Let us now look at decisions relating to the development and marketing of' individual products. We will focus on decisions about product attributes, branding, packaging, labelling, mid product-support services.
Product Attributes Developing a product involves defining the benefits that the product will offer. These benefits are communicated and delivered by tangible product attributes, such as quality, features and design. Decisions about these attributes are particularly important as they greatly affect consumer reactions to a product. We will now discuss the issues involved in each decision.
• Product Quality product quality The. ability of a product to perform its functions; it includes the product's overall durability, reliability, precision, ease of operation and repair, and other valued attributes.
Quality is one of the marketer's major positioning tools. Quality has two dimensions - level and consistency. In developing a product, the marketer must first choose a quality level that will support the product's position in the target market. Here, product quality stands for the ability of a product to perform its functions, it includes the product's overall durability, reliability, precision, ease of operation and repair, and other valued attributes. Although some of these attributes can be measured objectively, from a marketing point of view, quality should be measured in terms of buyers' perceptions. Companies rarely try to offer the highest possible quality level - few customers want or can afford the high levels of
hidimdual Product Decisions • 567 quality offered in products such as a Rolls-Royce, a Sub Zero refrigerator or a Rolex watch. Instead, companies choose a quality level that matches target market needs and the quality levels of competing products. Beyond quality level, high quality can also mean consistently delivering the targeted level of quality to consumers. In this sense, quality means 'absence of defects or variation'. During the past decade, a renewed emphasis on quality has spawned a global quality movement. Japanese firms have long practised 'total quality management' (TQM), an effort constantly to improve product and process quality in ever;' phase of their operations. For more than 40 years, die Japanese have awarded the Demming prize (named after quality pioneer W. Edwards Demming) to companies that have achieved outstanding quality. In these 40 years, a focus on quality has turned Japan from a maker of knick-knacks into an economic powerhouse - and European and US companies are now being forced to respond. The result has been a global revolution affecting every facet of business.3 To some companies, improving quality means using better quality control to reduce defects that annoy consumers. To others, it means making lofty speeches about die importance of quality and passing out lapel badges with quality slogans on them. But total quality management means much more than this. It requires a total-company dedication to continuous quality improvement. Quality starts with a strong eommitment by top management - many companies have now created 'total quality programmes' headed by vice-presidents or directors of quality. Then employees at all levels of the organization must be educated and motivated to put quality first. Rather than catching and correcting defects after die fact, total quality management involves preventing defects before they occur, through better product design and improved manufacturing processes. Beyond simply reducing product defects, the ultimate goal of total quality is to improve customer value. Some argue that total quality is not merely a manufacturing issue, but a powerful weapon for achieving 'total customer satisfaction'. This is possible if quality is defined from the customers' perspective and if product defects are interpreted in terms of customer need and expectations (see Marketing Highlight 13.1). Many companies have turned quality into a potent strategic weapon. Strategic quality involves gaining an edge over competitors by consistently offering products and services that better serve customers' needs and preferences for quality. As one expert proclaims: 'Quality is not simply a problem to be solved; it is a eoinpetitive opportunity.'1 Others suggest, however, that quality has now become a competitive necessity - only companies with the best quality will thrive.
• Product Features A product can be offered with varying features. A 'stripped-down' model, one without any extras, is the starting point. The company can create more features hy adding higher-level models. Features are a competitive tool for differentiating the company's product from competitors' products. Being the first producer to introduce a needed and valued new feature is one of the most effective ways to compete. How can a company identify new features and decide which ones to add to its product? The company should periodically survey buyers who have used the product and ask these questions: How do you like the product? Which specific features of the product do you like most? Which features could we add to improve the product? How much would you pay for each feature? The answers provide the company with a rich list of feature ideas, each of which should be assessed on the
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Motorola's
Customer-Defined, 'Six-Sigma Quality
Marketing improvements. The goal was to prevent defects from occurring In the first place by designing products for quality from the outset and making things right first time and every time. In many cases this also means improving product design. For example, Motorola's highly successful MieroTAC fold able, hand-held ecllular phone has fewer components, which snap together instead of being joined by screws or fasteners, resulting in fewer component defects and production errors. Meeting the six-sigma standard means that everyone in the organization must be dedicated to quality. Thus total quality has become an important part of Motorola's basic corporate culture. Motorola spends $120 million annually to educate employees about quality and it rewards people when they make things right. Because Motorola's products can be only as good as the components that go into them, the company forces its suppliers to meet the same exacting quality standards. Suppliers that comply also benefited greatly from their own quality improvements. More recently, Motorola's initial focus on preventing manufacturing defects has evolved into an emphasis on improving customer-defined quality and customer value. 'Quality', notes Motorola's vice-president of quality, 'has to do something for the customer.' Thus, the fundamental aim of the company's quality movement is 'total customer satisfaction'.
Highlight 13.1
Founded in 1928, Motorola introduced the first car radio - henee the name Motorola, suggesting 'sound in motion'. During the Second World War, it developed the first two-way radios ('walkietalkies'), and by the 1950s, Motorola had become a household name in consumer electronics products. In the 1970s, facing intense competition mainly from Japanese firms, Motorola switched its focus from radios and televisions to advanced telecommunications and electronics products semiconductors, two-way radios, pagers, cellular telephones and related gear. However by the early 1980s, Japanese competitors were still beating Motorola to the market with higher-quality products at lower prices. During the past decade, Motorola has come roaring back. It now leads all competitors in the global two-way mobile radio market and ranks no. 1 in cellular telephones, with a 45 per cent worldwide market share. Motorola is the world's third largest semiconductor producer, behind only Intel and NEC. Once in danger of being forced out of the pager business altogether. Motorola now dominates that market with an astonishing 85 per cent global market share. Motorola achieved such remarkable leadership through an obsessive dedication to quality. In the early 1980s, Motorola launched an aggressive crusade to improve product quality, first by tenfold, then by a hundredfold. It set the unheard-of goal of 'six-sigma' quality. Six sigma is a statistical term that means 'six standard deviations from a statistical performance average'. This means that Motorola set out to slash product defects to fewer than 3.4 per million components manufactured - that is, 99.9997 per cent defect free. 'Six sigma' became Motorola's rallying cry. In 1988 Motorola received one of the first annual Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Awards recognizing 'pre-eminent quality leadership'. Motorola's initial efforts were focused on improving product quality through manufacturing
Our definition of a defect is 'if the customer doesn't like it, it's a defect'. Instead of concentrating solely on manufacturing defects, Motorola now surveys customers about their quality needs, analyzes customer complaints and studies service records in a constant quest to improve value to the customer. Motorola's executives routinely visit customers' offices to gain more detailed, deeper insights into their needs. As a result, Motorola's total quality management programme has done more than reduce product defects: it has helped the
Individual 1'roduct Decisions
company to shift from an inwardly focused engineering orientation to a market-driven, customerfocused one. Now, Motorola's quality programme covers all of its departments and processes, from manufacturing and product development to market research, finance and even advertising. Some sceptics arc eoncerned that Motorola's obsession with quality might result in expensive products arriving late to the market. Motorola claims that the reverse is true - superior quality is the lowest-cost way to do things. The costs of monitoring and fixing mistakes can far exceed the costs of getting things right in the first place. Motorola estimates that its quality efforts have resulted in savings of more than 83 billion during the past six years.
And so Motorola's quest for quality continues. By the year 2001, Motorola is shooting for near perfection - a mind-boggling rate oi' just one defect per billion. SOURCES: Ronald Ilenkoff 'Keeping Motorola on a roll1, Fortune (18 April 1994), pp. 67-78; .1. Ward Best, 'The making of Motorola', Durham Hurald Sun (12 February 1995 , pp. Al, All. Quotes from 'Future perfect', The Ecniwmist (4 January 1992), p. 61; Lois Therrien, 'Motorola and XKO going for glory'. Business Week, special issue on quality (1991), pp. 60-1; 15.(.1. Yovovieh, 'Motorola's quest for quality'. Business Marketing (19 September 1991), pp. 1416. See also William Wiggenhorn, 'Motorola U: when training becomes an education', I laniard Business RK-MKIS (JulyAugust 1990), pp. 71-83; Ernest Raia, '1991 Medal of Professional Excellence'. Purchasing (26 September 1991), pp. .18-57.
basis of its customer value versus its company cost. The analysis should give insight into features that customers value highly in relation to costs, and which would truly improve the product's competitive position.
• Product Design Another way to add product distinctiveness is through product design. Some companies have reputations for outstanding design, such as Black & Decker in cordless appliances and tools, Olivetti in office equipment and Braun in shavers and small household appliances. Some companies have integrated design with their corporate culture. Consider IKEA, the Swedish home furnishing chain. Its corporate culture is 'smalandsk' - thrift is a virtue, no extravagance is allowed. This identity is reflected in IKEA's thrifty (hut stylish) designs and the dominance of traditional Scandinavian materials of light wood, linen and cotton textiles. Another company, the car maker Saab, promotes a design philosophy of simplicity and purity. 'There arc few excesses; form follows function. We also believe in fidelity to materials - when it's plastic, we don't try to make it look like wood,' says a Saab spokesperson.1 Many companies, however, lack a 'design touch'. Their product designs function poorly or are dull or common looking. Yet design can be one of the most powerful competitive weapons in a company's marketing arsenal. Design is a broader concept than style. Style simply describes the appearance of a product. A sensational style may grab attention, but it does not necessarily make the product perform better. In some cases, it might even result in worse performance. For example, a chair may look great yet be extremely uncomfortable. Unlike style, design is more than skin deep - it goes to the very heart of a product. Good design contributes to a product's usefulness as well as to its looks. A good designer considers appearance, but also creates products that are easy, safe, inexpensive to use and service, and simple and economical to produce and distribute. As competition intensifies, design will offer one of the most potent tools for differentiating and positioning products of all kinds. That investment in design
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Ford creates competitive adiyantage by highlighting product features. Photography (cur): John Turner; photography (people): Kiron Master; models: Julia Riiyncr ami Scott Thomas pays off has certainly been recognized by global companies which have embraced design - Nike, for example, employs 60 designers and releases 500 footwear designs each year. Its shoes are worn by athletes, but are aimed primarily at a youthful market for which high-performance footwear is currently fashionable.' Others like Minolta (cameras), Sony (hi-fis), Philips (compact disc players and shavers), Ford (cars) and Swatch (watches) have also profited from their commitment to product design. Differentiating through design is also a familiar strategy in premium products -such as Rolex watches, Porsche cars and Herman Miller office furniture. These products stand out from the crowd. Good design can attract attention, improve product performance, cut production costs and give the product a strong competitive advantage in the target market.7
Branding Consumers view a brand as an important part of a product, and branding can add value to a product. For example, most consumers would perceive a bottle of Opium perfume as a high-quality, expensive product. But the same perfume in an unmarked bottle would probably be viewed as lower in quality, even if the fragrance were identical. Branding has become a central issue in product strategy. On the one hand, developing ; branded product requires a great deal of long-term marketing investment, especially for advertising, promotion and packaging. Manufacturers often find it easier and less expensive simply to make the product and let others do the brand building. Taiwanese manufacturers, for example, have taken this course. They make a large amount of the world's clothing, consumer electronics and computers, but these products are sold under non-Taiwanese brand names. On the other hand, most manufacturers eventually learn that the power lies with the companies that control the brand names. For example, brand-name clothing, electronics and computer companies can replace their Taiwanese manufacturing sources with cheaper sources in Malaysia and elsewhere. The Taiwanese
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producers can do little to prevent the loss of sales to less expensive suppliers — consumers are loyal to the brands, not to the producers. In the past, Japanese and South Korean companies, however, have not made this mistake. They have spent heavily to buiid up brand names such as Sony, Panasonic, JVC, Hyundai, Goldstar and Samsung for their products. Even when these companies can no longer afford to manufacture their products in their homelands, their brand names continue to command customer loyalty.8 Powerful brand names have consumer franchise - that is, they command strong consumer loyalty. This means that a sufficient number of customers demand these brands and refuse substitutes, even if the substitutes are offered at somewhat lower prices. Companies that develop brands with a strong consumer franchise are insulated from competitors' promotional strategies. Thus it makes sense for a supplier to invest heavily to create strong national or even global recognition and preference for its brand name.
• What tji a Brand? Perhaps the most distinctive skill of professional marketers is their ability to create, maintain, protect, reinforce and enhance brands. A brand is a name, term, sign, symbol, design or a combination of these, which is used to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors.^ Thus a brand identifies the maker or supplier of a product. Take a product such as a cola drink - any manufacturer can produce a cola drink, but only the Coca-Cola Company can produce Coke. Branding is not a new phenomenon. In the last hundred years, however, its use has developed considerably. Legal systems recognize that brands are also property in a very real sense. Currently, over 160 countries have trademark laws allowing owners of brands to claim title in their brand names and logos through trademark registration. But brands, unlike other forms of intellectual property, such as patents and copyrights, do not have expiration dates and their owners have exclusive rights to use their brand name for an unlimited period of' time. A brand conveys a specific set of features, benefits and services to buyers. It is a mark, a tangible emblem, which says something about the product. The best brands, for example, often convey a warranty of quality. A brand can deliver up to four levels of meaning: 1. Attributes. A brand first brings to mind certain product attributes. For example, Mercedes suggests such attributes as 'well engineered', 'well built', 'durable', 'high prestige', 'fast', 'expensive' and 'high resale value'. The company may use one or more of these attributes in its advertising for the car. For years, Mercedes advertised 'Engineered like no other car in the world'. This provided a positioning platform for other attributes of the car. 2. Benefits. Customers do not buy attributes, they buy benefits. Therefore, attributes must be translated into functional and emotional benefits. For example, the attribute 'durable' could translate into the functional benefit, 'I won't have to buy a new car every few years.' The attribute 'expensive' might translate into the emotional benefit, 'The car makes me feel important and admired.' The attribute 'well built' might translate into the functional and emotional benefit, T am safe in the event of an accident.' 3. Values. A brand also says something about the buyers' values. Thus Mercedes buyers value high performance, safety and prestige. A brand marketer must identify the specific groups of car buyers whose values coincide with the delivered benefit package.
bnind
A name, term, sign, symbol or design, or a combination of These, iutentled to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from chose of competitors.
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572 • Chapter 13 Brands, Produces, Packaging anil Services 4.
Personality. A brand also projects a personality. Motivation researchers sometimes ask, 'If this brand were a person, what kind of person would it be?' Consumers might visualize a Mercedes automobile as being a wealthy, middle-aged business executive. The brand will attract people whose actual or desired self-images match the brand's image.10
All this suggests that a brand is a complex symbol. If a company treats a brand only as a name, it misses the point of branding. The challenge of branding is to develop a deep set of meanings or associations for the brand. Given the four levels of a brand's meaning, marketers must decide the levels at which they will build the brand's identity. It would be a mistake to promote only the brand's attributes. Remember, buyers are interested not so much in brand attributes as in brand benefits. Moreover, competitors can easily copy attributes. Or the current attributes may later become less valuable to consumers, hurting a brand that is tied too strongly to specific attributes. Even promoting rhe brand on one or more of its benefits can be risky. Suppose Mercedes touts its main benefit as 'high performance'. If several competing brands emerge with as high or higher performance, or if car buyers begin placing less importance on performance as compared to other benefits, Mercedes will need the freedom to move into a new benefit positioning. The most lasting and sustainable meanings of a brand are its core values and personality. They define the brand's essence. Thus Mercedes stands for 'high achievers and success'. The company must build its brand strategy around creating and protecting this brand personality. Although Mercedes has recently yielded to market pressures by introducing lower-price models, this might prove risky. Marketing less expensive models might dilute the personality that Mereedes has built up over the decades.
• Brand Equity
brand equity The value of a brand, based on the extent to •Tishich it has high brand loyalty, name awareness, perceived quality, strong brand associations, and other assets such as patents, trademarks and channel relationships.
Brands vary in the amount of power and value they have in the marketplace. Some brands are largely unknown to most buyers. Other brands have a high degree of consumer brand awareness. Still others enjoy brand preference buyers select them over the others. Finally, some brands command a high degree of brand loyalty. A top executive at II.J. Heinz proposes this test of brand loyalty: 'My aeid test .. is whether a [consumer], intending to buy Heinz Ketchup in a store but finding it out of stock, will walk out of the store to buy it elsewhere or switch to an alternative product.' A powerful brand has high brand equity. Brands have higher brand equity to the extent that they have higher brand loyalty, name awareness, perceived quality, strong brand associations and other assets such as patents, trademarks and channel relationships.11 A brand with strong brand equity is a valuable asset. In fact, it can even be bought or sold for a price. Many companies base their growth strategies on acquiring and building rich brand portfolio!}. For example, Grand Metropolitan acquired various Pillsbury brands, including Green Giant vegetables. Haagen-Dazs ice cream and Burger King restaurants. Switzerland's Nestle' bought Rowntree (UK), Carnation (US), Stouffcr (US), Buitoni-Perugina (Italy) and Perrier (France), making it the world's largest food company controlling many desirable 'brands'. Measuring the actual equity of a brand name is difficult. 12 Because it is so hard to measure, companies usually do not list brand equity on their balance sheets. Still, they pay handsomely for it. For example, Nestle paid £2.5 billion to buy Rowntree, six times its reported asset value. And when Grand Metropolitan bought Ileublein, it added 1s?800 million to its assets to reflect the value of Smirnoff
I
Individual Produce Dcciaions
Figure 13.3
Major branding decisions
and other names. According co one estimate, the brand equity of Marlboro is